ZIMBABWE

CONFLICT AND TRANSFORMATION

Conflict transformation and resolutions

 Explain the various causes of conflict.

 Analyse African traditional conflict resolution

methods used during the pre-colonial times.

 Outline Conflict management and resolution

styles.

 Discuss the strategies for sustaining peace.

 CONFLICT
 Conflict may be defined as a struggle or contest
between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs,
values, or goals.
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
 Is the practice of being able to identify and handle conflicts
sensibly, fairly, and efficiently.
 Everyone is striving to show how valuable they are to the
company they work for and at times, this can lead to
disputes with other members of the team.
 Conflicts if not managed well can lead to the organization
failing to meet its goals or targets.
Conflict Management Styles

 An accommodating manager is one who cooperates to a

high degree. This may be at the manager's own expense
and actually work against that manager's own goals,
objectives, and desired outcomes. This approach is
effective when the other person is the expert or has a
better solution.
 Avoiding an issue is one way a manager might attempt to
resolve a conflict. This type of conflict style does not help
the other staff members reach their goals and does not
help the manager who is avoiding the issue and cannot
assertively pursue his or her own goals. However, this
works well when the issue is trivial or when the manager
has no chance of winning.
 Collaborating managers become partners or pair up with
each other to achieve both of their goals in this style. This is
how managers break free of the win-lose paradigm and
seek the win-win. This can be effective for complex
scenarios where managers need to find a novel solution.
Competing: This is the win-lose approach. A
manager is acting in a very assertive way to
achieve his or her own goals without seeking to
cooperate with other employees, and it may be at
the expense of those other employees. This
approach may be appropriate for emergencies
when time is of the essence.
Compromising:

This is the lose-lose scenario where neither person

nor manager really achieves what they want. This
requires a moderate level of assertiveness and
cooperation. It may be appropriate for scenarios
where you need a temporary solution or where both
sides have equally important goals.
1.2 When to Use Which Approach
Competing
The competing approach is often appropriate when
an emergency looms, when you are sure you are
right and being right is more important than
preserving relationships, or the issue is trivial and
others do not really care what happens. This
approach is inappropriate when collaboration has
not yet been attempted, cooperation with others is
important, it is used routinely for most issues, or
when the self-respect of others is needlessly
diminished.
Avoiding

The avoiding approach is often appropriate when the

issue is trivial, the relationship is insignificant, time is
short and a decision is not necessary, and you have little
power but still wish to block the other person. The
avoiding approach is inappropriate when you care about
the relationship and the issues involved, when avoidance
is used habitually for most issues, when negative feelings
may linger, and when others would benefit from caring
confrontation.
Accommodating

The accommodating approach is best to use when you

encounter an issue you do not really care about, you
are powerless but have no wish to prevent the other
person from achieving their goals, or you realize you
are wrong. This approach is inappropriate when you
are likely to harbor resentment as a result, and you
use this habitually in order to gain acceptance (which
will result in depression or a lack of self-respect).
Compromising

This approach is best used when cooperation is

important but the time or resources are limited, when
faced with a stalemate and the only way to overcome
it is to settle for a less than ideal solution, and when
efforts to collaborate will be misunderstood as forcing.
This approach is least appropriate when finding the
most creative solutions possible is essential, or when
you cannot live with the consequences.
Conflict Resolution

Conflict Resolution encompasses negotiation,

mediation, and diplomacy.
Diplomacy generally refers to international
diplomacy in which experts in the field try and find
a solution to a conflict that will be acceptable to
both parties or countries on matters of economics,
war, peace, etc.
Mediation is necessary when two or more parties,
states, or individuals have a dispute about a
certain topic, and employ impartial, professional
mediators to try and improve communication and
dialogue between the parties to come to an
agreement.
Negotiation is a form of dialogue used to resolve a
conflict in which advantages and disadvantages are
discussed to try and come to agreement, and
persuade the other party to agree with you on the
best possible outcome for your party, or both parties.
Conflict Resolution can vary across cultures as the
presence of a third party professional or third party
trusted individual can be outside professionals, or
inner religious or community leaders
 (4) Conflict Resolution approaches such as
negotiation, mediation and diplomacy are best used
when a quick solution is needed and there is no
significant relationship between the conflicting
parties.
Oftentimes, professional negotiators are brought in
to resolve conflicts between larger parties, but
some of the positions they take or methods they
use can be useful in interpersonal and intergroup.
Conflict Transformation
Conflict Transformation seeks to exceed the goals
of Conflict Management and Conflict Resolution,
moving beyond the problems and toward a healthy
development of relationships between individuals
and communities.
Principles of Conflict Transformation
 In the midst of conflict, people are always hurt. As conflict
is a natural and normal part of life, Conflict Transformation
does not seek to look at the individual occurrences of
conflict, but rather at the pattern of conflict that is
occurring in relationships.
 Conflict Transformation encourages us not to view conflict
as a threat, but rather as an opportunity for growth and
learning more about ourselves and others. Scholars in the
subject also suggest that without conflict, life would be
monotonous and that “conflict creates life and keeps
everything moving. Conflict keeps us aware of our and
other’s needs.
Constructive Change Processes:
Engaging in conflict generates a lot of energy, and
more often than not, negative energy. Conflict
Transformation wishes to take that energy and
transform it from being destructive to being
constructive. The point is to generate creative,
constructive processes that can “simultaneously
address surface issues and change underlying social
structures and relationship patterns.
Reduce Violence and Increase Justice:
Conflict Transformation seeks to deal with the two
complex issues of violence and justice. In order to reduce
violence, the causes and patterns behind the violence
must be addressed. To increase justice, people need to
have access to political procedures and voice in the
decisions that affect their lives.
Conflict Transformation sees peace as “centered and
rooted in the quality of relationships.”
Peace is seen not as a goal, but as a process or structure,
something that is ongoing and continually developing,
and a framework within which nonviolent approaches to
conflict can be addressed through increasing
understanding, maintaining equality, and respect in the
Direct Interaction and Social Structures:
 Direct interaction through dialogue is necessary at
interpersonal, intergroup and social-structural levels in
order to bring about change processes. Through dialogue,
social structures can be “modified to be more responsive
and just.
 Human Relationships: As emphasized in some of the
previous principles, relationships are the key to Conflict
Transformation. Issues in conflict are of great importance,
but relationships provide the context of the conflict.
Working for transformation within the context of
relationship as opposed to simply discussing the content of
the dispute will aid in moving from resolution to
transformation which will be sustained much longer than
resolution itself.
The Five Steps to Conflict Resolution

Step 1: Identify the source of the conflict.

 The more information you have about the cause of

the conflict, the more easily you can help to resolve it.

To get the information you need, use a series of

questions to identify the cause, like, “When did you

feel upset?” “Do you see a relationship between that

and this incident?” “How did this incident begin?”

As a manager or supervisor, you need to give both
parties the chance to share their side of the story. It
will give you a better understanding of the situation,
as well as demonstrate your impartiality. As you
listen to each disputant, say, “I see” or “uh huh” to
acknowledge the information and encourage them
to continue to open up to you.
Step 2: Look beyond the incident.
 The source of the conflict might be a minor problem that
occurred months before, but the level of stress has grown
to the point where the two parties have begun attacking
each other personally instead of addressing the real
problem. In the calm of your office, you can get them to
look beyond the triggering incident to see the real cause.
Step 3: Request solutions.
 After getting each party’s viewpoint on the conflict, the next
step is to get each to identify how the situation could be
changed.
 As mediator, you have to be an active listener, aware of every
verbal nuance, as well as a good reader of body language.
 Just listen so that the disputants stop fighting and start
cooperating, and that means steering the discussion away
from finger pointing and toward ways of resolving the
conflict.
Step 4: Identify solutions both disputants can support.
You are listening for the most acceptable course of action.
Point out the merits of various ideas, not only from each
other’s perspective, but in terms of the benefits to the
organization. (For instance, you might point to the need for
greater cooperation and collaboration to effectively address
team issues and departmental problems.)
Step 5: Agreement.

The mediator needs to get the two parties to shake

hands and agree to one of the alternatives identified in
Step 4. Some mediators go as far as to write up a
contract in which actions and time frames are specified.
However, it might be sufficient to meet with the
individuals and have them answer these questions:
“What action plans will you both put in place to prevent
conflicts from arising in the future?” and “What will you
do if problems arise in the future?”
CAUSES OF CONFLICT. (Bell & Hart’s ):
1. Conflicting resources
Employees rely on accessing resources, such as
technology, office supplies and meeting rooms, to
perform effectively. Unfortunately, it is not always
possible for everyone to access the resources they wish
to at all times. If the reason someone cannot access the
resources is that someone else is using them then this
can lead to conflict. A manager’s job may then be to
decide who has the rightful access to the resource and
how it will be distributed in the future.
2. Conflicting styles
No two individuals will work the same. Different
methods of organisation, communication and time-
keeping are very common in any organisation. This is
generally effective as each individual should be
allowed to work in their own style. However, when it
comes to team tasks this can become problematic, as
some individuals will have to compromise on how the
work is done. A manager can avoid conflict occurring
here by selecting teams based on their similarities and
strengths.
3. Conflicting perceptions
Different perceptions of what the organisation’s goals
are, the methods used and who is responsible for
what can often lead to conflict. Open and transparent
communication is the key to avoiding this happening.
4. Conflicting goals
Often different managers will set targets and goals for the
same individual and this can often lead to conflicting goals
being set. For instance, it is hard to deliver on both speed
and quality and hence setting both these targets may cause
issues. The conflict here may be between the individual and
on or both of the managers or between the managers
themselves.
5. Conflicting pressures

Conflicting pressures are similar to conflicting goals,

except they usually exist over a shorter space of
time. Individuals may be pressured to complete two
different tasks by two different managers before the
end of the day and this can lead to conflict.
6. Conflicting roles
Often employees can be asked to perform a task that they are
not usually responsible for. This can cause conflict as either
the individual feels the task is not appropriate for them or
another individual believed it was for them. Whilst this can be
avoided by delegating the same tasks to the same individuals,
differentiating your team members’ roles can be a good
opportunity for learning and development.
7. Different personal values
Personal values determine the way we behave and the work
we produce. Often, individuals will disagree about the actions
they should take due to their personal values and this can
lead to conflict. As a manager, you can ensure your team
members are never put in a position where they are asked to
compromise their values.
8. Unpredictable policies
Rules and policies are not always communicated across an
organisation effectively. This can lead to a poor
understanding of them and confusion amongst team
members. It is important to ensure policies, and particularly
their changes, are communicated effectively throughout the
organisation to avoid conflict like this from occurring.
3.0 Causes of conflict in the workplace

 poor management
 unfair treatment
 unclear job roles
 inadequate training
 poor communication
 poor work environment
 lack of equal opportunities
 bullying and harassment
 significant changes to products, organisational charts,
appraisals or pay systems
 Major causes of workplace conflict
 Personality clashes - the 'personality mix' within a team
can be upset when a new member of staff joins or if two
colleagues suddenly fall out. Individuals may also respond
to difficult or challenging situations in an unhelpful or
unproductive way.
 Unrealistic needs and expectations - conflict at work can
often be caused when employers ignore the needs of
employees or set unrealistic expectations. For example,
arranging hours that make it difficult for employees to
carry out childcare responsibilities.
Business values - most people have very clear
ideas about what they think is fair, and your
organisation's procedures and policies must reflect
this. For example, giving someone a fair hearing or
explaining the reasoning behind a decision.
 Unresolved workplace issues - for example, an employee
might ask to be moved to another team because of their
manager's 'aggressive' leadership style. However, the
employee may have other reasons - for example, they may
blame their manager for a lack of training or career
progression.
 Increase in workload - sometimes workplace conflict is
caused because people feel they are being pushed too
hard and resentment sets in if they feel their workload is
unmanageable.
African traditional conflict resolution methods used during the pre-colonial times.

 Long before Africa was colonised, and way beyond the

advent of slave trade, African societies had institutional
mechanisms as well as cultural sources to uphold the
values of peace, tolerance, solidarity and respect for,
and of, one another.
 These structures were responsible for “peace education,
confidence-building, peace-making, peacebuilding,
conflict monitoring, conflict prevention, conflict
 The traditional African system of government was open
and inclusive, where all people could participate in the
decision-making process.
 While the West practised majoritarian, or representative
democracy Africans practised participatory democracy,
where decisions were taken by consensus at village
meetings, “variously called, dare by the Shona, ndaba by
the Zulu or kgotla by the Tswana.”
 However, with slave trade and colonisation, these
indigenous institutions were largely weakened and even
destroyed in many societies, especially as the colonial
masters introduced law courts, which came to pronounce
judgments rather than resolve conflicts according to the
African administration of justice.
 Of course, in this new legal system, the police took up cases
that, hitherto, were handled through traditional amicable
settlements, with emphasis on reconciliation and the
restoration of social harmony, rather than on punishment of
the conflicting parties.
 African traditional mechanisms of conflict prevention,
management and resolution were largely effective and
respected, and their decisions were binding on all parties,
mainly because “the identity of an individual is linked to
that of his or her family and these families are formed by
the acceptance of marriage alliances”.
 Here, the importance of the family in the conflict
management process was highlighted, as well as the role
of the chiefs, elders, family heads and others, to
anticipate and resolve conflicts.
 The major sources of conflict in Africa were land,
chieftaincy, personal relationship issues, family property,
honour, murder or poisoning, and matrimonial fall-outs. In
resolving these kinds of conflicts, the principles of equity
and justice, which is entrenched in African customs and
traditions, were upheld.
 This article highlights the traditional institutions and
methods of conflict resolution in the Kom community of
Cameroon.
 Methods engaged in resolution of conflict in Africa The
methods of performing conflict resolution in the
traditional African societies are as follows: mediation,
adjudication, reconciliation, arbitration and negotiation.
 It also includes employing extra-judicial devices and usage
of legal maxims to persuade or convince the disputants
about the implication or otherwise of their behavior.
These methods have been effective in traditional African
Society.
Mediation
 Mediation is an old method of conflict management
surrounded by secrecy. It involves non-coercive intervention
of the mediators(s), called third party either to reduce or …
go beyond or bring conflict to peaceful settlement.
 Olaoba, described mediation as a method of conflict
resolution that had been so critical to traditional society. The
mediators usually endeavoured that peace and harmony
reigned supreme in the society at whatever level of
mediation.
Adjudication

Adjudication In traditional African society, adjudication

involves bringing all disputants in the conflict to a meeting

usually in the chambers or compounds of family heads,

quarter heads and palace court as the case maybe.

Dialogue was linked with the ad judicatory processes in

traditional (Olaoba, 2005)

Reconciliation

This was the most significant aspect of conflict resolution. It

is the end product of adjudication. After the disputants

have been persuaded to end the dispute, peace was

restored. This restoration of peace and harmony was always

anchored on the principle of give a little and get a little.

 A feast was usually organized to confirm the readiness of

the conflicting parties towards reaching points of

compromise (Ibid).

 At least, as characteristic of African traditional society,

conflict resolution method is the use of arbitration.

 The purpose is not to render a judgment in law but to

reconcile the conflicting parties and its norms.

Negotiation

 The secret is to harmonize the interests of the parties

concerned. Thus, even when the conflict involves a
member against his or her society, there is an emphasis
on recuperation and reinsertion of errant member back
into its place in society.
 The recovery of a dissident member can just as well be
seen as the restoration of the harmony and integrity of
the community, as the assertion of value consensus and
social cohesion, so that the management of the conflict
 Conflict resolution in traditional shona people
(zezuru)
Traditional Brew
 In the Zezuru communities, fermented beers are commonly
prepared at home from locally grown grains like sorghum or
rapoko.
 Traditionally, these homemade beers are used during special
cultural events such as weddings, funerals and spirit-appeasing
ceremonies amongst others.
 The most common of these traditional beers is a seven-day
brew called „rematanda’, ‘ndari’ or ‘ngoto’.
Silence Traditionally

silence has been used by victims of injustices as a

way of keeping away from constant reminders of
the past and possibly, buttressed by the 1979
approach by the liberation and former colonial
movements;
 it has now become an official mode of healing and
reconciliation.
Compensation „Kuripa‟
 Compensation „Kuripa‟ In the Zimbabwean customs,
compensation or reparation is a common method of
settling disputes especially where one or the perpetrator
would have caused the victim to lose his/her valuables.
 In such cases, negotiations are held before an agreement
is reached as to how much is supposed to be paid as
appropriate repayment or compensation.
 In Shona culture, it is called „kuripa’ and is highly
recognized as a long-term cultural method of healing.
Traditional Court Systems
 According to Jenkins (2004), the rule of law concept lies in the
Eurocentric paradigm that assumes that the state, rather than the
community, carries the responsibility of dealing with crime and
other social problems.
 This approach, which is derived from English common law, uses
the state as the primary agent in dealing with the behaviour of
individuals, treatment of offenders, and compensation for victims.
 However, prior to that, there was the traditional court system
headed by traditional leaders that operated effectively and
efficiently.
Marriage
 One of the most respected institutions involved in conflict
resolution in the Zezuru culture is marriage.
 It is believed that marriage brings together strangers
creating strong bonds, sees the continuation of the family
name, solves conflicts and brings labour into the family
amongst others.
 In the Zezuru culture marriage is basically the coming
together of two or more parties of different sex for
procreation
Traditional Appeasement of the Dead
 Appeasement of the dead, bringing home or re-calling the
spirit back into the village „Kurova guva, kutamba guva,
kuchenura munhu or magadziro‟ is a traditional ritual
which is performed in honour and remembrance of the
dead by the living. Gundani (1994) calls it ritual integration
of the deceased's spirit.
 It is a ceremony which is performed once and usually a year
after the death of a person or after a rain season in the year
after death.
‘Jakwara’ as a Conflict Resolution Measure
 ‘Jakwara’ or collective work is an approach that is used in
communal areas to help each other execute heavy tasks
especially related to agricultural activities.
 This activity is known by different terms within the Zezuru
community with some societies calling it „nhimbe‟ while
others call it „jangano‟ or „humwe‟ (Tavuyanago et al,
2010).
 It must be realized however that „jangano‟ was a concept
seeking cooperation but without involving beer.
Traditional ‘Bira’ Roles

 The spiritual dance ceremony ‘bira’ served various

purposes in society; appeasement of the dead ‘kurova
guva’,
 paying tribute to the ancestors ‘kukudza/kurangarira
vadzimu’, evoking spirits ‘kukumbira mudzimu’,
 celebration ‘mhemberero’,
house warming ‘kuratidza musha’,

seeking family blessings ‘kuuraya gono/kuparadza

bhuru remusha’,
rain-seeking ‘mukwerera/mutoro’,

thanking the spirits for successes ‘kutenda mashavi’

and memorial programs ‘mharadza
musasa/nyaradzo’ and several others. Some people
call this ‘mutambo’ for party.
Traditional Story-Telling
 Normally, story-telling is taken as a past-time activity, which is
supposed to entertain people as they while up their evenings in
the rural communities.
 However, what must be realized is that, there were several other
purposes that they served, deliberately or otherwise, amongst
them wisdom and knowledge dissemination.
 These two aspects helped in inculcating a sense of love, peace,
harmony, tolerance, relationship, togetherness and the ability to
converse, engage, confront, mediate (Price, 2007) negotiate,
reason, persuade, enforce and analyse events as they unfolded.
Importance of conflict resolution
 Conflict resolution provides an opportunity to interact with the
parties concerned, with the hope of at least reducing the
scope, intensity and effects of conflicts.
 During formal and informal meetings, conflict resolution
exercises permit a reassessment of views and claims as a basis
for finding options to crisis and to divergent points of view.
 Those who organize conflict resolution exercises or meetings
usually constitute the third party in a triangular arrangement
and consist of traditional rulers (King, Chiefs, etc).
 Conflict resolution in the plural societies can be quite
complex, principally because of the determinate effects of
culture and language symbolism.
 According to Airuch (2001) it is quite dangerous to relegate
culture to the background in conflict resolution.
 Although, culture is a marker of social differences, it should
be regarded as an obstacle to conflict resolution in multi-
ethnic/multi-cultural societies.
 Conflict resolution performs a healing function in African
societies.
 It provides opportunity for the examinations of
alternative positive decision to resolve differences.
 Failure to resolve conflict over access to commonly
valued scarce resources, and over divergent perceptions
of socio-political situations, has the high potential of
degenerating into genocide or fratricide as it occurred
the Hutu-Tutsi of Burundi and Rwanda (Punier, 1995).
 Conflict resolution promotes consensus-building, social

bridge reconstructions, and the re-enactment of order in

society.

 Conflicts hardly break up societies (Otite, 2001, p. 9).

 It takes into account the cultural setting and the social

context.

 It looks at the history of preceding events which have led

to the conflict concerned.

 it takes possible implications for the future seriously.
 A wider look is taken than one which just includes the
disputing parties, possible consequences for others in
their families and social network are also taken into
consideration.
 Potential effects on relationship and interests are
envisaged.
 Cross examination a means of weighting evidence through
cross checking and corroborating of the facts of the
conflict (Olaoba, 2000)
strategies for sustaining peace.

 The overall objective of the Strategy for sustainable peace

is to contribute to prevention of armed conflict, effective
conflict resolution, sustainable peacebuilding and state
building, increased human security in fragile and conflict-
affected states, and empowerment of women as well as of
youth, children and other excluded groups in these
situations.
 The strategy therefore include a broad approach of
prevention of armed conflict, peacebuilding and state
building, human security, and strengthened role for
women and for young people in fragile and conflict-
affected situations in order to enable relevant support to
sustainable peace.
 Examination Questions

Define the term conflict

Conflict is a relationship between two or more
parties who perceive they have incompatible goals
or means or means of achieving those goals, (Fisher
2017)
 Define conflict resolution

 Diamond (2009) defines conflict resolution as those

activities that seek to discover, identify and resolve the
underlying root cause of conflict
 They are approaches aimed at terminating conflicts
through constructing solving the problems distinct from
management or conflict transformation.
Discuss the impact of conflict in Africa
 Destruction of public infrastructure-roads, schools ,
hospitals, bridges and industries
 Displacement of people
 Loss of lives
 Destruction of property
 Tenure, Rape and assaults
 Persistence of poverty, economic decline, loss of
income
 Obstacle to development
 Diverting of resources from investment to war
 Forced migration
Discuss any six reasons why mediation as a conflict resolution
method is referred over litigation in solving a conflict in
Zimbabwe.

 mediation-it is a voluntary process in which an impartial

person (the mediator) helps with communication and
promotes reconciliation between the parties which will
allow them to reach a mutually acceptable agreement. It is
the next step if the negotiation process is unsuccessful.
 Why mediation is preferred
 Mediation is a less expensive route to follow than
litigation.
 Mediation offers a confidential process while court cases
(litigation) happen in public.
 Mediation meetings are confidential and are conducted
behind closed doors.
 Outsiders can only observe proceedings with both parties
consent.
 In mediation parties have control over the resolution
and the resolution, and the resolution can be unique to
the conflict while in litigation the judge decides the
outcome.
 Solutions developed by the parties are ones that a
judge or jury cannot provide.
 Mediation s more likely to produce a result that is
mutually agreeable.
 Mediation is a win win outcome while in litigation one
losses the case.
Using relevant examples, discuss causes of conflict in Zimbabwe and
across Africa
 Economic conflict/ resource conflict- access to land, minerals, water,
timber, rubber, etc.
 Class conflict (rich v the poor)

 Racial or tribal conflict-Ndebele v Shona

 Power conflict (MDC v ZANU PF)

 Territorial/ boundary conflict

 Religious conflicts (Christians v Moslems or African religion v

Christians)
 Personal or leadership conflicts

 Ideological conflicts
Examples of conflicts in Zimbabwe and Africa

 first and second chimurenga

 Operation restore order-operation Murambatsvina in
2005.
 Zimbabwe’s land redistribution programme
 Religious conflicts in southern and northern Sudan
(Christians v Muslims).
 Apartheid in south Africa
 17 November 2018 military takeover in Zimbabwe
Conflict is natural, inevitable and sometimes necessary to
produce innovative solutions to problems. In the light of the
above statement, discuss any conflict which has resulted in
socio-economic changes in your community.

 Land reform and redistribution in Zimbabwe

Socio-economic changes
 Employment creation the mases of Zimbabweans n
agriculture.
 Construction of schools, hospitals roads , clinics in the
formerly white owned farms.
 Local people involved in the production of commercial
crops such a tobacco.
 Settlers accumulated assets
 Increase in agricultural production in tobacco farming.
 Infrastructural development.
 Improvement in the standard of living of the people
(settlers being able to send their children to reputable
institutions.
 Food provisions for families
 Black ownership of the land
 Brings foreign currency especially in tobacco farming.
 Modernisation of of agricultural equipment
 Increased knowledge in agriculture.
 Government support.
Discuss the impact of conflict resolution methods used by
African traditional leaders to resolve conflicts in
communities.
 African traditional leaders guided and counselled
communities in moral codes of the community.
 In matters relating to lord, sprits and ancestors.
 There was more action for peace than more talk.
 An offence was forgiven and was never recalled.
 In case of murders and various crimes courts were held
and these were presided over by chiefs.
 These were conducted under tress or specifically
designated arears.
 Restitution or compensation for loss was done.
 Killing or pouring of kinsman’s blood in a conflict would
anger the ancestors and would demand sacrifice.
 Sacrifices of blood were mad.
 For crimes committed people were asked to pay goats, etc.
 Violation of certain values and beliefs in the community
meant punishment through payment.
 These conflict resolution methods were meant to turn a
conflict into a peaceful relationship.
The following are conflict resolution methods , which one
would you preferer to use in order to resolve any conflict.
Support you’re your answer;
 Arbitration
 Conciliation
 Mediation
 Negotiation
 Power sharing
 Litigation
With reference to your community, discuss the causes
of conflict.

Conflict - is the result of opposing interests involving scarce resources,

goal divergence and frustration.
Answer
 Raw materials

 Water

 Minerals

 Religion

 Poor management

 -Unfair treatment
 Unclear job roles
 Inadequate training
 Poor communication
 Poor work environment
 Lack of opportunities
 Bullying
 Harassment
Using practical examples, highlight the operations of the
conflict model

Definition of Terms

Conflict Model-

According to Mitchell, the conflict structure consists of three parts:

 attitudes

 behavior

 situations that interact and create conflicts between actors.

 Mitchell’s conflict structure simplifies the complex reality in an

understandable way.
 The situation impacts the behavior (failure to reach
targeted goals, especially important goals, creates
frustration and increases the willingness to reach these
goals).
 The situation impacts attitudes (incompatible goals increase
the suspicion and distrust between the actors).
 Behavior impacts the situation (success can introduce new
questions in the conflict as demands increases).
 Behavior impacts the attitudes (destruction increases
hatred, success can impact the group solidarity and the
notion of "us").
 Attitudes impact the behavior (expectations such as "our
traditional enemies will attack again" will impact the
defensive planning and preventive actions).
 Attitudes impact the situation (the longer the conflict
continues the more questions will be introduced).
With reference to your community, explain the
traditional conflict resolution methods used during
the pre-colonial era
Answer
Zimbabwe communities have varied traditional methods for
conflict handling. The methods have complemented the
government efforts in dealing with protracted violence in
some parts of the country. The methods vary from one
conflict environment to the other. Some examples include
the following:
a) Negotiation
 In negotiation parties meet to identify and discuss the issues at
hand so as to arrive at a mutually acceptable solution without
the help of a third party. Negotiation is thus voluntary.
 It allows party autonomy in the process and over the outcome.
It is non-coercive thus allowing parties’ room to come up with
creative solutions.
 It has also been described as a process involving two or more
people of either equal or unequal power meeting to discuss
shared and/or opposed interests in relation to a particular area
of mutual concern.
 As such the focus of negotiations is the common interests
of the parties rather than their relative power or position.
The goal is to avoid the overemphasis of how the dispute
arose but to create options that satisfy both the mutual
and individual interests.
 Consequently whatever outcome is arrived at in
negotiation it is one that satisfies both parties and
addresses the root causes of the conflict and that’s why
negotiation is a conflict resolution mechanism.
b) Mediation
 Mediation in traditional dispute resolution is a very informal
process. It is a continuation of the negotiation process by other
means whereby instead of having a two way negotiation, it
now becomes a three way process: the mediator in essence
mediating the negotiations between the parties.
 Mediation is thus a continuation of the negotiation process in
the presence of a third party. It is voluntarily entered into,
parties exhibits autonomy in the choice of the mediator, over
the process and the outcome. It is effective, efficient, depicts
fairness and addresses power imbalances among parties.
 Such mediations result in a resolution of the conflict as opposed
to a settlement. Traditional mediation is effective in dealing with
interpersonal or inter - community conflicts.

 Local mediation typically incorporates consensus building based

on open discussions to exchange of information and clarify issues.

 Conflicting parties are more likely to accept guidance from these

mediators than from other sources because an elder’s decision
does not entail any loss of face and is backed by social pressure.

 The end result is, ideally, a sense of unity, shared involvement and
responsibility, and dialogue among groups otherwise in conflict.
Conciliation
 Conciliation is a process in which a third party, called a
conciliator, restores damaged relationships between
disputing parties by bringing them together , clarifying
perceptions and pointing out misperceptions.
 The difference between mediation and conciliation is that
the conciliator, unlike the mediator who is supposed to be
neutral, may or may not be totally neutral to the interests
of the parties.
 Successful conciliation reduces tension, opens channels
of communication and facilitates continued negotiations.
 Frequently, conciliation is used to restore the parties to
pre-dispute status quo, after which other alternative
dispute resolution methods are applied
 Conciliation is also used when parties are unwilling,
unable or unprepared to come to the bargaining table.
 Having looked at the concept of access to justice using
the traditional justice systems, the traditional justice
systems are dictated by the custom and traditions of the
people.
 It is passed down from generation to generation as a way
of regulating life of the people in the community the basic
logic being to maintain harmony and good relationships
among the people.
The examples of traditional conflict resolution
methods have been discussed; we now focus on
the advantages and benefits of using traditional
justice systems, doing a case against engaging with
traditional justice systems and analyzing traditional
institutions that are used in conflict management.
Analyze the benefits and advantages of using traditional
conflict resolution methods in your community

 Traditional approaches provide for inclusion and

participation. In the same way as all parties (and every
member of each party) are responsible for the conflict,
everybody also has to take responsibility for its solution.
 A solution can only be achieved by consensus. Every side
has to perceive the resolution as a win-win outcome,
compatible with its own interests – which are not confined
to the material sphere, but also comprise issues such as
honor, prestige, saving one’s face.
 In a non-adversarial atmosphere, communication between
alienated parties can be restored, leading to increased
mutual understanding.
 Interested parties that are involved in the issues at stake
bring to the bargaining table a much deeper understanding
of the technical and institutional dimensions of the
problem than an external judge would, and are in a better
position to explore different solutions and analyse their
consequences.
In contrast to the adversarial environment of
the courts, resolution facilitators are impartial
and work with all the parties to a dispute which
helps bring about an effective resolution that
satisfies their respective interests.
 In the same spirit a resolution process gives the parties
control over costs and the potential to settle earlier than
you could in adversarial litigation, which gets more
expensive the longer it takes.
 The wide range of resolution techniques available and
their adaptability make them a very flexible vehicle for
the resolution of many different types of disputes that
could arise among parties.
 Facilitated resolution allows disputing parties to
discuss and clarify their respective needs and concerns
informally and to resolve underlying issues in their
relationship.
 This enables them to preserve and sometimes even
enhance their relationships.
 Litigation carries a high level of uncertainty and risk over
which the parties to a dispute have little control.
 Traditional conflict resolution puts the parties in control of
the process with greater certainty that a mutually
satisfactory solution will be reached.
 Since the interested parties retain control, substantive
issues of importance to them can be discussed and the
roots of the problem tackled.
 These are major attributes of traditional conflict
resolution mechanisms.
 By their very own characteristics, there has to be a spirit
of co-operation, a passive stance, the parties should be
willing to reach a mutually satisfying resolution to a
problem and most importantly, there has to be
persuasion as opposed to coercion.
 Informal justice systems are often more accessible to the
poor and the disadvantaged people and may have the
potential to provide a quick, cheap and culturally relevant
remedies.
 Informal justice systems are prevalent throughout the world,
especially in developing countries.
 They are the cornerstone of dispute resolution and access to
justice for the majority of populations, especially the poor
and disadvantaged in many countries, where informal justice
systems usually resolve between 80 and 90 percent of the
 The prospects for successful implementation of the
decisions/solutions produced by the interested parties
themselves are enhanced and, as they have a better
understanding of and a greater investment in the
settlement, any subsequent problems that do arise can
often be expeditiously resolved, rather than becoming
the subject of further litigation (lawsuits breed more
lawsuits).
 They focus on consensus, reconciliation and social harmony:

the goal often is not just to punish the perpetrator, but to

compensate the victim for their loss, to prevent the accused

from committing the crime again, and to reintegrate both

the victim and the offender back to the community.

 The type of justice promoted by these systems may be the

most appropriate option for people living in a close-knit

community whose members must rely on continued social

and economic cooperation of the neighbors.

 They enjoy social legitimacy, trust and understanding of
local problems: informal justice systems often reflect local
social norms and are closely linked to the local community.
Community members often have a sense of ownership
towards their respective system. Informal justice actors
have local legitimacy and authority that is not always
afforded to formal operators.
 Informal justice systems tend to work well where the
community is relatively homogenous, linguistically,
culturally and is bound by ties of mutual dependency. In
this setting one often defines one’s identity as being
inextricably part of networks: familial networks, cultural
networks, religious networks and strong sense of bounded
communities. Informal justice actors often understand local
problems and are capable of finding practical solutions to
their problems.
 The traditional conflict resolution methods are often
preventive and deterrent measures of conflicts both within
and without the community.
 Most of the rituals performed during conflict management
process are horrifying, strenuous and expensive and as
such are avoided.
 This has been reinforced by cultural beliefs, taboos, norms
and superstitions that further make the mechanisms
binding and adhered to.
 The penalties, fines and compensations imposed by
customary courts are very severe and prohibitive making
it a perfect mechanism of preventing intra and inter-
ethnic conflicts and crimes.
 The collective nature of some of the punishments places
the role of preventing conflicts at the family and clan level
enlisting the support of everybody in the clan.
 They are easily accessible and devoid of bureaucratic
hitches that have marred the modern court system.
 Incase of a dispute, elders can easily convene anywhere in
the villages and solve the problem.
 It is a quick and effective way of administering justice.
 The traditional methods are also culturally accepted and
adhered to. Customary law is based on societal norms,
taboos and beliefs.
 The verdict of informal court sittings is taken as a direct
reflection of the cultural norms and customary law.
 The customary law is reinforced by a strong belief in
curses.
With reference to your community, highlight the
conflict resolution styles that can be used to solve a
conflict
• The five styles used to manage conflict are:
• Avoiding: low assertiveness and low cooperation
• Accommodating: Low assertiveness and high cooperation
• Competing: High assertiveness and low cooperation
• Compromising: Medium assertiveness and medium
cooperation
• Collaborating: High assertiveness and high cooperation
 Competing is assertive and uncooperative, a power-
oriented mode. When competing, an individual pursues his
or her own concerns at the other person’s expense, using
whatever power seems appropriate to win his or her
position. Competing may mean standing up for your rights,
defending a position you believe is correct or simply trying
to win.
 Accommodating is unassertive and cooperative—the
opposite of competing. When accommodating, an
individual neglects his or her own concerns to satisfy the
concerns of the other person; there is an element of self-
sacrifice in this mode. Accommodating might take the
form of selfless generosity or charity, obeying another
person’s order when you would prefer not to, or yielding
to another’s point of view.
 Avoiding is unassertive and uncooperative. When avoiding,
an individual does not immediately pursue his or her own
concerns or those of the other person. He or she does not
address the conflict. Avoiding might take the form of a
diplomatically sidestepping an issue, postponing an issue
until a better time, or simply withdrawing from a
threatening situation.
 Compromising is intermediate in both assertiveness and
cooperativeness. When compromising, an individual has the
objective of finding an expedient, mutually acceptable solution
that partially satisfies both parties. Compromising falls on a
middle ground between competing and accommodating, giving
up more than competing but less than accommodating.
Likewise, it addresses an issue more directly than avoiding but
doesn’t explore it in as much depth as collaborating.
Compromising might mean splitting the difference, exchanging
concessions, or seeking a quick middle-ground position.
 Collaborating is both assertive and cooperative. When
collaborating, an individual attempts to work with the other
person to find a solution that fully satisfies the concerns of
both. It involves digging into an issue to identify the
underlying concerns of the two individuals and to find an
alternative that meets both sets of concerns. Collaborating
between two persons might take the form of exploring a
disagreement to learn from each other’s insights, resolving
some condition that would otherwise have them competing
for resources, or confronting and trying to find a creative
solution to an interpersonal problem
Using practical examples, discuss conflict resolution skills
that can be employed at a place of employment
Conflict resolution - is a way for two or more parties to find
peaceful solution to a disagreement among them. The
disagreement may be personal, financial, political or
emotional.
Answer
 The ability to successfully resolve conflict depends on your
ability to;
 Manage stress quickly while remaining alert and calm
 Control your emotions and behavior
 Pay attention to the feelings being expressed as well as the
spoken words of others.
 Be aware of and respect differences.
Using practical examples, highlight strategies that can
be implemented in conflict resolution
Definition of terms
• Conflict resolution
Answer
 When angry, separate yourself from the situation and take
time to cool out.
 Attack the problem, not the person. Start with a
compliment.
 Communicate your feelings assertively, NOT aggressively.
Express them without blaming.
 Focus on the issue, NOT your position about the issue.
 Accept and respect that individual opinions may differ,
don’t try to force compliance, work to develop common