CHAPTER I: Introduction To Heat Transfer

Methods of Heat Transfer, Conduction, Convection and

Radiation

1
Heat transfer: the mechanisms
Three mechanisms for heat transfer: conduction,
convection and radiation

2
Heat Transfer
Heat always moves from a warmer place to a cooler
place.
Hot objects in a cooler room will cool to room
temperature.
Cold objects in a warmer room will heat up to room
temperature.

3
Heat Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through materials
by the direct contact of matter.
Dense metals like copper and aluminum are very good
thermal conductors.

4
How does heat pass through different
materials?
 Conduction is heat transfer by
means of molecular agitation within
a material without any motion of
the material as a whole.

 If one end of a metal rod is at a

higher temperature, then energy
will be transferred down the rod
toward the colder end because the
higher speed particles will collide
with the slower ones with a net
transfer of energy to the slower
ones.

5
Conduction
When you heat a metal strip at one end, the heat
travels to the other end.

As you heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these

vibrations make the adjacent particles vibrate, and so on
and so on, the vibrations are passed along the metal and
so is the heat. We call this? Conduction
6
Metals are different

The outer e______

lectrons of metal atoms
drift, and are free to move.

When the metal is

heated, this ‘sea of
inetic
electrons’ gain k_____
energy and transfer it
throughout the metal.

Insulators, such as w___

ood and p____,
lastic do not
have this ‘sea of electrons’ which is why they
do not conduct heat as well as metals.

7
We know heat passes through different material
at different rate , this phenomena is function of
several factors. One of these factor is a physical
property known as thermal conductivity, shown
by letter of k.
Thermal conductivity has unit of,
a) W/moC or W/mK in SI system Unit
b) Btu/(hr ft oF) or Btu/(hr ft
R) in British Unit

8
thermal conduction is
governed by:

a)electron
movement (ke)
only in electrically
conducting
materials, i.e.
metals
b)lattice vibrations
(kl)
in all materials,
so
k= ke +kl
9
A thermal insulator is a material that conducts heat
poorly.
Heat flows very slowly through the plastic so that the
temperature of your hand does not rise very much.

10
Styrofoam gets its
insulating ability by
trapping spaces of
air in bubbles.
Solids usually are
better heat
conductors than
liquids, and liquids
are better
conductors than
gases.

11
Heat
Conduction
The ability to conduct
heat often depends more
on the structure of a
material than on the
material itself.
Solid glass is a
thermal conductor
when it is formed
into a beaker or
cup.
When glass is spun
into fine fibers, the
trapped air makes a
thermal insulator

12
The thermal
conductivity
of a material
describes
how well the
material
conducts
heat.
13
Thermal
Conductivity
Heat conduction
in solids and
liquids works by
transferring
energy through
bonds between
atoms or
molecules
14
The range of thermal conductivity of various
materials at room temperature

• ability to conduct heat

• different for each material
At room temperature;

k= 0.608 W/m 0 C for water

k= 80.2 W/m 0 C for

iron

The ones having low

thermal conductivities
are insulators
15
Variation of Thermal Conductivity With
Temperature
Metals Gases

16
 The thermal conductivities of
materials vary with
temperatures

The thermal conductivities of

certain solids exhibit dramatic
increases at temperatures near
absolute zero, when these solids
become super conductors.

For example: Copper

T ( K) k (W/m. 0 C)
20 20 000
300 401

17
Variables for conduction of
Heat tested by Fourier

18
Heat Conduction
Fourier’s Equation
Thermal conductivity Area perpendicular to heat flow(m2)
(watts/moC)

dQ/d τ =q = - k A ΔT/ ∆X
Temperature
difference (oC) Length or Thickness(m)

19
Energy Balance for
one Dimensional Heat
Flow; Plane Wall
q@x+dx = -[kAdT/dx
+{∂(kA∂T/∂x)/∂x}dx]
qacc. =ρvCp∂T/∂τ
Adding the terms and
assuming constant
thermal conductivity and
dividing by k and dx we
will have;
∂2T/∂x2+q. /k= ρCp/k
∂T/∂τ or
∂2T/∂x2+q. /k=1/α ∂T/∂τ
α = thermal diffusivity ;@
steady state condition;
∂2T/∂x2+q. /k=0

20
Why does metal feel colder than wood, if they are both at
the same temperature?

Metal is a conductor, wood is an insulator. Metal

conducts the heat away from your hands. Wood
does not conduct the heat away from your hands as
well as the metal, so the wood feels warmer than
the metal. This phenomenon is known as thermal
diffusivity: α

21
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
Thermal diffusivity is a material property which represents how fast heat
diffuses through a material.
The ratio of heat conducted through a material to the heat stored per unit
volume
 Thermal diffusivity
heat conducted
 
k C P Specific heat
C P
heat stored

High k or low CP large thermal diffusivity

The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat will be conducted further.

22
Energy Balance For one dimensional Heat
Flow; a) Plane Wall
- kAdT/dx+[kAdT/dx+{∂(-kA∂T/∂x)/∂x]}dx] + qoAdx =
ρAdxCP ∂T/∂τ
Assuming constant k and dividing by k, dx, and A we
will have;

1/A ∂(A ∂T/∂x)/∂x + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ

23
 Energy Balance For
one dimensional Heat
Flow; b) cylindrical
coordinate, L>>R
We can Use the general equation;
1/A ∂(A ∂T/∂x)/∂x + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ
A= 2П rL

1/r ∂(r ∂T/∂r)/∂r + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ

24
 Energy Balance For
one dimensional
Heat Flow; c)
shperical coordinate
Also here we can use the
general equation;
1/A ∂(A ∂T/∂x)/∂x + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ
A = 4П r2

1/r2 ∂(r2 ∂T/∂r)/∂r + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ

25
Comparing the 3 Equations for
3 Coordinates
1/A ∂(A ∂T/∂x)/∂x + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ
1/r ∂(r ∂T/∂r)/∂r + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ
1/r2 ∂(r2 ∂T/∂x)/∂r + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ
We Can Conclude and Write the General Equation as;

1/rn ∂(rn ∂T/∂r)/∂r + qo/ k = 1/α ∂T/∂τ Where;

n =0 for Rectangular coordinate
n =1 for Cylindrical coordinate
n =2 for Spherical coordinate

26
 Example 1
The lateral surface of a truncated
cone is insulated, as it is shown. Its
top surface has a radius of 10 cm,
while the bottom surface has radius
of 15 cm. Average thermal
conductivity of the cone is 5 W/moC,
determine rate of heat loss through
the cone.
Solution:
q = - kAdT/dx
 Let r = a + bx where, @ x=0 r = .1m
therefore, a = 0.1
27
Example 1 cont.
@ x = 0.5 m r= 0.15m , therefore, b=.1
so, r = 0.1 +0.1x, therefore , A = Л (0.1 +0.1x)2
q = -kAdT/dx
 q ∫ dx/(0.1 +0.1x)2 = - (5)(Л )∫ dT
 q [- 1/[0.1(0.1+0.1x)│0.5] = 5(Л)(300-100)
 q = 94.2 W

28
Energy Balance For Heat Flow in Multiple
Dimensions

29
Energy Balance for Heat Flow in Multiple
Dimensions , a)Plane wall
 qinput – qoutput + q generation = qacc.
 q input= qx@ x=0 + qy@y=0 + qz@z=0
 q output = qx@ x = x+dx + qy@ y = y+dy + qz@ z = z+dz
 qx@ x=0= - k dy dz ∂T/∂x
 qy@y=0= - k dx dz ∂T/∂y
 qz@z=0= - k dy dx ∂T/∂z
 qx@ x = x+dx = -[k dy dz ∂T/∂x +(∂(k dy dz ∂T/∂x)/∂x)dx]
 qy@ y = y+dy = -[k dx dz ∂T/∂y +(∂(k dx dz ∂T/∂y)/∂y) dy]
 qz@ z = z+dz = -[k dy dx ∂T/∂z +(∂(k dy dx ∂T/∂z)/∂z)dz]
 Heat Generation q Generation = q0 dx dy dz
 Heat accumulation q acc. = ρ dx dy dz CP ∂T/∂τ

30
Energy Balance for Heat Flow in Multiple
Dimensions ,a)Plane wall
Adding the terms, and assuming thermal
conductivity k is constant and dividing by k and
unit volume dxdydz
∂2T/∂x2 +∂2T/∂y2 +∂2T/∂z2 + qo/k = 1/α ∂T/ ∂τ
Or ▼2T + qo/k = 1/α ∂T/ ∂τ at steady state
▼2T + qo/k = 0

31
Example: 2
At instant of time temperature distribution in a plane wall is
given as T(x,y,z)= 4x2+3xy – 4y2 + 3z2, if heat generation in
the wall is 4x104 W/m3 and thermal conductivity of wall is 25
W/moC, determine whether the wall is heating , cooling or at
steady state condition.
Solution :
∂2 T/∂x2 =8 ∂2T/∂y2 = -8 ∂2T/∂z2 = 6
∂2T/∂x2 +∂2T/∂y2 +∂2T/∂z2 + qo/k = 1/α ∂T/ ∂τ
8 - 8 + 6 + 4x104/25= 1/α ∂T/ ∂τ =1606 , therefore, the wall is in
heating condition.

32
Energy Balance for Heat Flow in Multiple
Dimensions, b)Cylindrical Coordinate

33
Energy Balance for Heat Flow in Multiple
Dimensions, b)Cylindrical Coordinate
qz = - k rdФdr∂T/∂z
qr = - k rdФdz ∂T/∂r
qФ= - k drdz ∂T/r∂Ф
qz+dz = - {k rdФdr∂T/∂z +[∂(k rdФdr∂T/∂z)/∂z]dz}
qr+dr = - {k rdФdz∂T/∂r +[∂(k rdФdz∂T/∂r)/∂r]dr}
qФ+dФ = - {k drdz∂T/r∂Ф +[∂(k drdz∂T/r∂Ф)/r∂Ф]rdФ}
qGeneration= qo rdФdrdz
q Accumulation = ρ rdФdrdz CP ∂T/∂Ƭ

34
q input = qz + qr + qΦ
q output = qz +dz + qr +dr + qΦ +dΦ
q input – qoutput + qGen = q Acc.
Adding the equations

35
Energy Balance for Heat Flow in Multiple
Dimensions, b)Spherical Coordinate

36
Similarly for Spherical
Coordinate

37
Convection
What happens to the particles in a liquid or a
gas when you heat them?

The particles spread out and

become less dense.

What is a fluid? A liquid or gas.

This effects fluid movement.
38
Fluid movement

ense fluids
Cooler, more d____,
sink through w_____,
armer less
dense fluids.

In effect, warmer liquids and

gases r___
ise up.

Cooler liquids and gases s___.

ink

39
Water movement

Cools at the Convection

surface current

Cooler Hot water

water sinks rises

40
Why is it windy at the seaside?

41
Convection Heat Transfer
 Convection is heat transfer by mass motion of a fluid such as air or
water when the heated fluid is caused to move away from the source
of heat, carrying energy with it.

 Convection above a hot surface occurs because hot air expands,

becomes less dense and rises (natural or free). Convection assisted
by external sources such as breeze, pump or fan – it is called forced
convection.

 Hot water is likewise less dense than cold water and rises, causing
convection currents which transport energy.

42
Convection
When the flow of gas or
liquid comes from
differences in density
and temperature, it is
called free convection.
When the flow of gas or
liquid is circulated by
pumps or fans it is called
forced convection

43
If the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external means such as a fan, pump
or the wind, heat is transferred by forced convection whereas if the fluid is caused
by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the variation of
temperature in fluid it is called natural or free convection

44
Newton’s Law of Cooling
Convection coefficient, h
dQ
~ h A (T2  T1 )
dt

DT between
surface and air
way from
surface
45
Dependence of Heat Transfer
Coefficient
In force convection, heat
transfer coefficient depends
on several factors
mainly( geometrical surface
flowing on, nature of flow of
fluid, and volumetric flow
rate) .
In free convection, heat
transfer coefficient depends
mainly on ΔT to some
power.
46
Points:
1)Heat Transfer coefficient of liquids > Heat Transfer
coefficient of Gases
2) Heat Transfer Coefficient in
free convection< Force convection< Boiling condition < Condensation
3) In Vacuum condition there is no heat transfer by
convection.
4) Heat transfer by convection on rough surfaces is
greater than on smooth surfaces.

47
Type of Fluid and Heat Transfer
Condition Coefficient h W/m2 oC

Air Free Convection 5- 25

Air Force convection 30 – 300

Water Force Convection 300 -6000

Water at boiling 3000 – 60,000

Water at condensation 6000 – 120,000

48
Example 3
 Both sides of a thin metal plate
is placed in different conditions
as shown. Determine the
temperature of the plate.
 Solution:
 Since we have thin plate
therefore, there is no
conduction resistant, so
 q left side = q right side
 h1 (T∞1 -Tw ) = h2 (Tw -T∞2)
 10 (100 – Tw) = 100 (Tw – 20)
 300 = 11Tw
Tw=27.3 oC

49
The third method of heat transfer

How does heat energy get

from the Sun to the Earth?
There are no particles
between the Sun and the
Earth so it CANNOT
travel by conduction or
by convection.

RADIATION
?

50
 Heat transfer: the mechanisms

Radiation:
The transfer of heat via electromagnetic wave is called radiation.
Example - the Sun.

51
Ludwig Boltzmann
(1844-1906)

All objects above absolute zero

emit radiant energy and the rate
of emission increases and the
peak wavelength decreases as
the temperature of object
increases

52
Thermography
53
Radiant Heat
We do not see the
thermal radiation
because it occurs at
infrared wavelengths
invisible to the human
eye.
Objects glow different
colors at different
temperatures.

54
55
Radiant Heat
A rock at room temperature
does not “glow”.
The curve for 20°C does not
extend into visible
wavelengths.
As objects heat up they start
to give off visible light, or
glow.
At 600°C objects glow dull
red, like the burner on an
electric stove.

56
Radiant Heat
 As the temperature rises, thermal
radiation produces shorter-
wavelength, higher energy light.
 At 1,000°C the color is yellow-
orange, turning to white at
1,500°C.
 If you carefully watch a bulb on a
dimmer switch, you see its color
change as the filament gets hotter.
 The bright white light from a bulb is
thermal radiation from an
extremely hot filament, near
2,600°C.

57
Radiant Heat
The graph of power
versus wavelength for a
perfect blackbody is
called the blackbody
spectrum.

58
Radiant Heat
 From radiant heat point of view objects are divided
into two groups, Blackbodies, and gray bodies
 A perfect blackbody is a surface that reflects nothing
and emits pure thermal radiation.
 The white-hot filament of a bulb is a good blackbody
because all light from the filament is thermal
radiation and almost none of it is reflected from other
sources.
 The curve for 2,600°C shows that radiation is
emitted over the whole range of visible light.

59
60
61
62
 Stefan-Boltzmann formula
Surface area (m2)

Power
(watts)
q = s AT4

Absolute temperature
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (K)
5.67 x 10-8 watts/m2K4)

63
Incident Energy Reach A Surface
Energy reaches a surface it may
be Reflected, or absorbed , or
transmitted.
 ρ+ α +Τ =1

64
 Absorption & Stefan-Boltzmann Law

Incident radiation (INTENSITY I -

energy passing through a square metre
every second
Iinc = q/ A Iabs = α Iinc

Power absorbed by surface of an object

Qabs

qabs= dQabs/dζ = AασTs4

• Surface Area, A A, α
• Absorption coefficient, α = 0 to 1
• Stefan-Boltzmann constant
σ = 5.67 x
10-8 W.m-2.K-4 Ts
65
 Emission & Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Power radiated from the surface of an object

A, ε, T Qrad
qrad = AσεT4

• Surface Area, A
• Emissivity, ε = 0 to 1
• Stefan-Boltzmann constant
σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W.m-2.K-4

qnet =qrad – qabs qnet>0→ net heat transfer out of system

66
A blackbody absorbs all the radiation incident upon it and emits
the max possible radiation at all wavelengths
(ε = α = 1)

A gray body is a surface that absorbs a certain proportion of the

energy of a blackbody, the constant being constant over the entire
band of wavelengths
(0  ε = α < 1)

emissivity ε
absorption coefficient (absorptivity) α

Stefan-Boltzmann constant  = 5.6710-8 W.m-2.K-4

Polished surfaces have ε ~ 0.01 are poor emitter and absorber, but
they are good reflectors
Earth ε ~ 0.3 Water ε ~ 0.96
67
Emissivity, ε – the nature of the surface
Summer clothing: white reflects
radiant energy better than black.

Wrap an ice-cube in black cloth

and another in aluminium foil and
place both in the sunshine. What
will happen?

Why the pupil of the eye is black?

ε ~ 0.8 ε ~ 0.4

68
Example 4: Estimate the outer layer sun’s temperature
Given:
Assume ε = 1
Distance from Sun to Earth: RSE = 1.5 x 1011 m
Radius of the Sun: RS = 6.9 x 108 m
Solar radiation at Earth’s surface: q = 1300 W.m-2
s = 5.67 x 10-8 W.m-2.K-4
RS

Solution R
SE

Power radiated by Sun

qrad = q A = q 4pRSE2 = (1300)(4p)(1.5x1011)2 W = 3.676x 1026 W

Surface area of the Sun, ASun = 4pRS2 = 5.98 x 1018 m2

T 4 = qrad / (Asun ε s )  T = 5.74 x 103 K

69
Example 5: Estimate the Earth’s outer layer surface Temperature TE

Solar constant qo= 1360 W.m-2

RSE Earth albedo (reflectivity) ρE = 0.3

Earth Power absorbed by Earth:

qabs = (1- ρE) Adisk qo
Adisk = pRE2
Power radiated by Earth:
qrad = AE s TE4

ε=1 qabs = qrad  TE = 255 K = -18 oC

radiation emitted from

AE = 4pRE2
the surface of a sphere
70
71
Heat transfer between 2 surfaces
Net heat transfer between 2 surfaces is given as;
 emissivity factor
 shape factor

q = σ F FG A ( T24 –T41)
For 2parallel surfaces FG = 1
For a small surface radiated heat to a large surface
FG = 1
72
Example 6
500 W of pen like bulb has a length of 12 cm with
7mm diameter. When the light is on 95% of energy is
turned to heat. If the emissivity of glass bulb is 0.4,
heat transfer coefficient of environment is h= 12
W/m2 oC , T∞ = 25oC. The temperature of the wall is
27oC. Determine the surface temperature of the light
bulb knowing for the glass bulb α =0.4.
Solution:
q = σ F FG A ( Ts4 –T4w) + h A (Ts –T∞)

73
Example 6 cont.
q = 500x0.95x0.4 =190W
190=5.669x10-8 x0.4 x1xπx.007x.12(Ts4 – 3004)+
12xπx.007x.12(Ts – 298)
5.9841x10-11Ts4 + 0.03166 Ts – 199.92155 =0
Ts = 1277.7 K = 1004.55oC

74
Radiation

Radiation travels in straight lines

True/False
Radiation can travel through a vacuum
True/False
Radiation requires particles to travel
True/False
Radiation travels at the speed of light
True/False

75
Emission experiment
Four containers were filled with warm water. Which
container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?

Dull metal Shiny black

Shiny metal Dull black

shiny metal container would be the warmest after ten

The __________
radiation back
minutes because its shiny surface reflects heat _______
dull black container
into the container so less is lost. The ________
emitting heat
would be the coolest because it is the best at _______
radiation.

76
Absorption experiment
Four containers were placed equidistant from a heater. Which
container would have the warmest water after ten minutes?

Dull metal Shiny black

Shiny metal Dull black

dull black container would be the warmest after ten

The __________
radiation the best.
minutes because its surface absorbs heat _______
shiny metal container would be the coolest because it is
The _________
the poorest at __________
absorbing heat radiation.

77
Radiation questions

Why are houses painted white in hot countries?

White reflects heat radiation and keeps the house cooler.

Why are shiny foil blankets wrapped around marathon

runners at the end of a race?

The shiny metal reflects the heat radiation from the runner
back in, this stops the runner getting cold.

78
1. Which of the following is not a
method of heat transfer?

A. Radiation
B. Insulation
C. Conduction
D. Convection

79
2. In which of the following are
the particles closest together?

A. Solid
B. Liquid
C. Gas
D. Fluid

80
3. How does heat energy reach
the Earth from the Sun?

A. Radiation
B. Conduction
C. Convection
D. Insulation

81
4. Which is the best surface for
reflecting heat radiation?

A. Shiny white
B. Dull white
C. Shiny black
D. Dull black

82
5. Which is the best surface for
absorbing heat radiation?

A. Shiny white
B. Dull white
C. Shiny black
D. Dull black

83