Week 14 Lect 1

REFRIGERATORS
● Heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing

temperature, that is, from high-temperature mediums
to low temperature ones.
● This heat transfer process occurs in nature without
requiring any devices.
● The reverse process, however, cannot occur by itself.
● The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium
to a high-temperature one requires special devices
called refrigerators.
● Refrigeration cycle is called vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle
In a household refrigerator, the freezer compartment where heat is absorbed
by the refrigerant serves as the evaporator, and the coils usually behind the
refrigerator where heat is dissipated to the kitchen air serve as the
condenser.
Coefficient of Performance
(COPR)
• The efficiency of a refrigerator is
measured by coefficient of
performance (COPR).
• In the US energy efficiency
rating (EER).
• EER = 3.142 COPR

HEAT PUMPS
• Device that transfers heat
from a low-temperature
medium to a high-
temperature one is the heat
pump.
Typical Rating
• Typical COPR :
2.6–3.0 for cutting and preparation rooms;
2.3–2.6 for meat, deli, dairy, and produce;
1.2–1.5 for frozen foods;
1.0–1.2 for ice cream units
• Typical EER of AC 8 - 12 (COPAC 2.3 - 3.5).
• Typical COPHP 2 - 3.
EXAMPLE 6–3
The food compartment of a refrigerator

is maintained at 4°C by removing heat
from it at a rate of 360 kJ/min. If the
required power input to the refrigerator
is 2 kW, determine (a) the COPR and (b)
the rate of heat rejection to the room
that houses the refrigerator.
Solution
(a) The coefficient of performance of the refrigerator is:
(b) The rate of heat rejection is QH :
Notice that both the energy removed from the

refrigerated space as heat and the energy supplied to the
refrigerator as electrical work show up in the room air
and become part of the internal energy of the air.
EXAMPLE 6–4
A heat pump is used to meet the
heating requirements of a house
and maintain it at 20°C. On a day
when the outdoor air temperature
drops to 2°C, the house is estimated
to lose heat at a rate of 80,000
kJ/h. If the heat pump under these
conditions has a COP of 2.5,
determine (a) the power consumed
by the heat pump and (b) the rate at
which heat is absorbed from the
cold outdoor air.
Solution
(a) The power consumed by this heat pump:
(b) The rate of heat transfer from the outdoor is QL:
Note that 48,000 of the 80,000 kJ/h heat is extracted from the
cold outdoor air. Therefore, we are paying only for the 32,000-kJ/h
energy as electrical work. If we use an electric resistance heater
instead, we have to supply the entire 80,000 kJ/h as electric
energy. The heating bill will be 2.5 times higher.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Clausius Statement
• Related to refrigerators or
heat pumps
• “It is impossible to
construct a device that
operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other
than the transfer of heat
from a lower-temperature
body to a higher-
temperature body.”
An impossible Refrigerator
Kelvin–Planck vs. Clausius
Statement
• Both are negative statements, and a negative statement
cannot be proved.
• To date, no experiment has been conducted that
contradicts the statement, and this is sufficient proof of
its validity.
• Both statements are equivalent in their consequences,
and either statement can be used as the expression of
the second law of thermodynamics.
• Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement
also violates the Clausius statement, and vice versa.
A perpetual-motion machine that
violates the second law of
A perpetual-motion machine that
thermodynamics (PMM2).
violates the first law (PMM1).
Perpetual-motion machine: Any device that violates the first or the second
law.
A device that violates the first law (by creating energy) is called a PMM1.
A device that violates the second law is called a PMM2.
Despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have
worked. If something sounds too good to be true, it probably is.
• A reversible process is one carried out
infinitely slowly, so that the process can be
considered as a series of equilibrium states, and
the whole process could be done in reverse
with no change in magnitude of the work done
or heat exchanged.
• Of course this cannot be done since it would take
an infinite time.
• All real processes are irreversible: they cannot
be done infinitely slowly, there can be turbulence
in the gas, friction will be present, and so on.
• Why are we interested in reversible processes?
• (1) they are easy to analyze and
• (2) they serve as idealized models (theoretical limits) to which actual
processes can be compared.
• Some processes are more irreversible than others.
• We try to approximate reversible processes. Why?
Reversible processes deliver the most and consume

the least work.
Two familiar
reversible processes.
• The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called irreversibilities.
• They include friction, unrestrained expansion,
Friction mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
renders a temperature difference, electric resistance,
process inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical
irreversible. reactions.
Irreversibilitie
s
(a) Heat
transfer
through a
temperature
difference is
irreversible, Irreversible
and (b) the compression
reverse and
process is expansion
impossible. processes.
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process.
• Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
• Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
• A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.
A reversible process involves

no internal and external Totally and internally reversible heat
irreversibilities. transfer processes.
CARNOT ENGINE = IDEAL ENGINE
• In the early nineteenth century, the French
scientist N.L. Sadi Carnot (1796 – 1832) studied
in detail the process of transforming heat into
mechanical energy.
• Goal to increase inefficiency.
• In 1824 Carnot invented, on paper, the Carnot
engine. This is the ideal engine.
Carnot's Engine
• The Carnot engine makes use of a reversible
cycle.
• This cycle is called the Carnot cycle and the
working substance is an ideal gas.
• Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible
cycle, therefore, all the processes that comprise it
can be reversed, in which case it becomes the
Carnot refrigeration cycle.
• Carnot heat-engine cycle is a totally reversible
cycle, therefore, all the processes that comprise
it can be reversed, in which case it becomes the
Carnot refrigeration cycle.
• The Carnot heat-engine cycle and the Carnot

refrigeration cycle are two sides of the same
thermodynamic process, often referred to as the
Carnot cycle.
Carnot Cycle
THE CARNOT
PRINCIPLES
Proof of the first Carnot principle.

The Carnot principles.
1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

efficiency of a reversible one operating between the same two
reservoirs.
2. The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the
same two reservoirs are the same.

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REFRIGERATORS

● Heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing

• EER = 3.142 COPR

The food compartment of a refrigerator

(b) The rate of heat rejection is QH :

Notice that both the energy removed from the

(b) The rate of heat transfer from the outdoor is QL:

Reversible processes deliver the most and consume

A reversible process involves

• The Carnot heat-engine cycle and the Carnot

Proof of the first Carnot principle.

1. The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the

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