Chapter 5 -Biopotential Electrodes

Note -This chapter taken from Dr.Michael R. Neumano work and modified by Dr.Noman AL
Naggar

in
John G. Webster (Editor)
Medical Instrumentation: Application and Design
John Wiley & Sons, 1998

ISBN 0-471-15368-0
1
 Chapter 5 -Biopotential Electrodes
The Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
Polarization
Polarizable and Nonpolarizable Electrodes
Electrode Behavior & Circuit Models
The Electrode-Skin Interface & Motion Artifact
Body-Surface Recording Electrodes
Internal Electrodes
Microelectrodes
Electrodes for Electric Stimulation of Tissue
Practical Hints in Using Electrodes
 Biopotential Electrodes – The Basics
The interface between the body and electronic measuring devices
Conduct current across the interface
Current is carried in the body by ions

Current is carried in electronics by electrons

Electrodes must convert the ionic current in the body into an
electronic current that flows through the electrode.
This is all mediated at what is called the Electrode-Electrolyte
Interface or the Electrode-Tissue Interface

3
 Current Flow at the Electrode-Electrolyte Interface
 Electron flow - Electrons move in opposite
 Ion flow
Ion+ flow  direction to current flow
Cations (C+ ) move in same direction
as current flow
Anions (A– ) move in opposite
direction of current flow
Chemical oxidation (current flow
right) - reduction (current flow left)
reactions at the interface:
+ Current flow  C C++e–
Figure 5.1 The current crosses it from left to right. A– A + e–
The electrode consists of metallic atoms C. No current at equilibrium
The electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing cations of the
electrode metal C+ and anions A-. 4
 Electrode-Electrolyte Interface

Oxidation reaction causes atom to lose electron

Reduction reaction causes atom to gain electron
Oxidation is dominant when the current flow is from electrode to electrolyte, and
reduction dominate when the current flow is in the opposite.
Oxidation Reduction

Anion

Cation

Current flow Current flow

C  C  ne 
n
C  C n   ne 
 Half-Cell Potential
Half-Cell potential is determined by
- Metal involved
- Concentration of its ion in solution
- Temperature
- And other second order factors
C  C n   ne 
C  C n   ne 

Certain mechanism separate charges at the metal-electrolyte interface results in one type of
charge is dominant on the surface of the metal and the opposite charge is concentrated at the
immediately adjacent electrolyte.
 Half-Cell Potential
When metal (C) contacts electrolyte, oxidation (C  C + e ) or
+ –

reduction (A  A + e ) begins immediately.

- –

Local concentration of cations at the surface changes.

Charge builds up in the regions.
Electrolyte surrounding the metal assumes a different electric potential from the
rest of the solution.
This potential difference is called the half-cell potential ( E0 ).
Separation of charge at the electrode-electrolyte interface results in a electric
double layer (bilayer).
Measuring the half-cell potential requires the use of a second reference electrode.
By convention, the hydrogen electrode is chosen as the reference.
Half-Cell Potentials of Common Metals at 25 ºC
Metal Potential E0 (volts)

Al - 1.706
Zn - 0.763
Cr - 0.744
Fe - 0.409
Cd - 0.401
Ni - 0.230
By definition: Hydrogen is
Pb - 0.126 bubbled over a platinum
H 0.000 electrode and the potential
AgCl + 0.223 is defined as zero.
Hg2Cl2 + 0.268
Cu + 0.522
Ag + 0.799
Au + 1.680
8
 Electrode Polarization
 Standard half-cell potential ( E0 ):
 Normally E0 is an equilibrium value and assumes zero-current across the interface.
 When current flows, the half-cell potential, E0 , changes.
 Overpotential ( Vp ):
 Difference between non-zero current and zero-current half-cell potentials; also called the polarization
potential (Vp).
 Components of the overpotential ( Vp ):

 Ohmic ( Vr ): Due to the resistance of the electrolyte (voltage drop along the path of ionic flow).

 Concentration ( Vc ): Due to a redistribution of the ions in the vicinity of the electrode-electrolyte interface

(concentration changes).
 Activation ( Va ): Due to metal ions going into solution (must overcome an energy barrier, the activation

energy) or due to metal plating out of solution onto the electrode (a second activation energy).

Vp = Vr + Vc + Va
9
 Nernst Equation
 Governs the half-cell potential:

RT (5.6)
EE 0
ln(aC n )
where nF
E – half-cell potential
E0– standard half-cell potential (the electrode in an electrolyte with unity
activity at standard temperature)
 gas constant [ 8.31 J/(mol K) ]
R – universal
T – absolute temperature in K
n – valence of the electrode material
F – Faraday constant [ 96,500 C/(mol/valence) ]
aC
– ionic activity of cation Cn+
n

(its availability to enter into a reaction)

 10
Nernst Equation

aC n


11
 Polarizability & Electrodes
Perfectly polarizable electrodes:
 No charge crosses the electrode when current is applied

 Noble metals are closest (like platinum and gold); they are difficult to oxidize and dissolve.

 Current does not cross, but rather changes the concentration of ions at the interface.

 Behave like a capacitor.

Perfectly non-polarizable electrodes:

 All charge freely crosses the interface when current is applied.

 No overpotential is generated.

 Behave like a resistor.

 Silver/silver-chloride is a good non-polarizable electrode.

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 The Classic Ag/AgCl Electrodes Features:
 Practical electrode, easy to fabricate.
 Metal (Ag) electrode is coated with a layer of slightly
soluble ionic compound of the metal and a suitable anion
(Cl).
Reaction 1: silver oxidizes at the Ag/AgCl
interface
Ag Ag + + e –

Reaction 2: silver cations combine with

chloride anions
Ag + + Cl – Ag Cl
Figure 5.2 A silver/silver chloride
electrode, shown in cross section. AgCl is only slightly soluble in water so most
precipitates onto the electrode to form a
surface coating. 13
 Ag/AgCl Fabrication
Electrolytic process
Large Ag/AgCl electrode serves as the
cathode.
A
Smaller Ag electrode to be chloridized serves
as the anode.
A 1.5 volt battery is the energy source.
A resistor limits the current.
Cathode Anode
A millimbmeter measures the plating current.
Electrochemical Cell Reaction has an initial surge of current.
When current approaches a steady state
(about 10 µA), the process is terminated.

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Sintered Ag/AgCl Electrode
Sintering Process
A mixture of Ag and AgCl powder is
pressed into a pellet around a silver lead
wire.
Baked at 400 ºC for several hours.
Known for great endurance (surface
does not flake off as in the
electrolytically generated electrodes).
Silver powder is added to increase
conductivity since AgCl is not a good
conductor.

15
Electrode Behavior and Circuit Models

Ehc is the half-cell potential

Cd is the capacitance of the electric double layer
(polarizable electrode properties).
Rd is resistance to current flow across the
electrode-electrolyte interface (non-polarizable
electrode properties).
Rs is the series resistance associated with the
conductivity of the electrolyte.

16
 Electrode Behavior and Circuit Models
At high frequencies: Rs
At low frequencies: Rd + Rs

1 cm nickel-and carbon-loaded silicone rubber electrode

2
17
 Characteristic of Electrode
The characteristic of an
electrode is
- Sensitive to current density
- Waveform and frequency
dependent

mA.s unite surface

Figure 5.5 Impedance as a function of frequency for Ag electrodes coated with an AgCl layer. The electrode area is
0.25 cm2. Numbers attached to curves indicate the number of mAs for each deposit (‫)رواسب‬. 18
 The Electrode-Skin Interface
and Motion Artifact
Transparent electrolyte gel containing Cl- is used to maintain good
contact between the electrode and the skin.

Figure 5.7 19
 Electrode-Skin Interface Model Ehe

Motion artifact:
Electrode Cd Rd
Gel is disturbed, the charge
Sweat glands
distribution is perturbed and ducts
Gel Rs
changing the half-cell potentials
at the electrode and skin. Ese EP
Minimized by using non- Epidermis
Ce Re CP RP
polarizable electrode and
mechanical abrasion (‫ )صنفرة‬of
Dermis and
skin. subcutaneous layer Ru
Skin regenerates in 24 hours.
For 1 cm2, skin impedance reduces from
approximately 200K at 1Hz to 200 at
Figure 5.8 A body-surface electrode is placed against skin,
1MHz.
showing the total electrical equivalent circuit obtained in this
The Galvanic Skin Response ( GSR )
situation. Each circuit element on the right is at approximately the
measurement is used to know the dermal
activity of sweat gland same level at which the physical process that it represents would be
in the left-hand diagram. 20
 Body-Surface Recording
Electrode
Metal-Plate Electrodes

Figure 5.9 Body-surface biopotential electrodes

(a)Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs.
(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.
(c) Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with electrocardiograph monitoring
apparatus.
21
 Body-Surface Recording Electrode
Suction Electrodes

A paste is introduced into the cup.

The electrodes are then suctioned into
place.
Ten of these can be with the clinical
electrocardiograph – limb and precordial
(chest) electrodes

Figure 5.10

22
 Body-Surface Recording
Metal disk
Electrode Insulating
package
Floating Metal Electrodes

Double-sided
Mechanical technique to Adhesive-tape
ring Electrolyte gel
reduce noise. in recess

Isolates the electrode- (a)

(b)

electrolyte interface Snap coated with Ag-AgCl External snap

Gel-coated sponge
from motion artifacts. Plastic cup Plastic disk

(c) Foam pad Tack Dead cellular material

Capillary loops Germinating layer

Figure 5.11 (a) Recessed electrode with top-hat structure.

(b) Cross-sectional view of the electrode in (a).
(c) Cross-sectional view of a disposable recessed electrode of the same general structure shown in Figure 5.9(c).
The recess in this electrode is formed from an open foam disk, saturated with electrolyte gel and placed over the
metal electrode. 23
 Flexible Body-Surface Electrodes
Flexible electrodes
- Body contours are often irregular
- Regularly shaped rigid electrodes may not
always work.
- Special case : infants
- Material :
 - Polymer or nylon with silver
 - Carbon filled silicon rubber
 (Mylar film)
(a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber
(b) Flexible Mylar film with Ag/AgCl electrode
(c) Cross section of the Mylar electrode
24
Figure 5.12
Percutaneous Electrodes
Needle and wire electrodes for
percutaneous measurement of
biopotentials

(a) Insulated needle

(b) Coaxial needle

(c) Bipolar coaxial needle

(d) Fine wire, ready for insertion

(e) Fine wire, after insertion

(f) Coiled fine wire, after insertion

Figure 5.13 25
 Fetal Intra cutaneous Electrodes

Suction needle electrode

Suction electrode (in place)

Helical electrode (attached by corkscrew action)

Figure 5.14
Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by means of intra
cutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode.
(b) Cross-sectional view of suction electrode in place, showing penetration of
probe through epidermis.
(c) Helical electrode, which is attached to fetal skin by twisting type action. 26
5- Microelectrodes
Why
Measure potential difference across cell membrane
Requirements
Small enough to be placed into cell Intracellular
Strong enough to penetrate cell membrane
Extracellular
Typical tip diameter: 0.05 – 10 microns
Types
Solid metal -> Tungsten microelectrodes
Supported metal (metal contained within/outside glass needle)
Glass micro pipette -> with Ag-AgCl electrode metal

27
5-1.Metal Microelectrodes
C

Microns!

R
Extracellular recording – typically in brain where you are
interested in recording the firing of neurons (spikes).

Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance

amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier!
28
 5-1.Metal Microelectrodes
C

Microns!

Metal needle with a very fine tip (less than 1.0 µm)
Prepared by electrolytic etching
Metal needle is the anode of an electrolytic cell, and is slowly drawn out of the electrolyte
solution (difficult to produce)
Metal must have great strength: stainless steel, platinum-iridium, tungsten, tungsten carbide.

29
5-2.Metal Supported Microelectrodes

(a) Metal inside glass (b) Glass inside metal

30
 6- Glass Micropipette Ag-AgCl wire+3M KCl has
heat very low junction potential
pull and hence very accurate for
dc measurements (e.g.
action potential)

A glass micropipette electrode filled

with an electrolytic solution
(a) Section of fine-bore glass capillary.
(b) Capillary narrowed through heating
Fill with and stretching.
intracellular (c) Final structure of glass-pipet
fluid or 3M KCl
microelectrode.

Intracellular recording – typically for recording from cells,

Need high impedance amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier! 31
 Microelectrode Electrical Model
Cell Insulation Submerged
membrane Metal rod shaft

N = Nucleus Tissue fluid Tissue

+ +
C = Cytoplasm fluid
Membrane N = Nucleus +
+ - - - + - +
potential C = Cytoplasm Shank in
+ - + - -- + tissue fluid
+ - C - + + -
- +-
+ - - + C
N -
- ++ + -
+ -
- - - + Shank Electrode tip
+ - - - - - -- + inside cell
+ + + inside cell
+ + + +
Shank Capacitance:
Cd1 2r0
 (5.16)
L ln(D /d) er, e0 = dielectric const.
Figure 5.21 (a) Electrode with tip placed
within a cell, showing origin of distributed
D = avg. dia. of shank
Submerged Shaft d = dia. of electrode
capacitance
Capacitance:
t = thickness of
 Cd 2 r0d
 (5.17) insulation layer
L t L = length of shank &
shaft, respectively
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 A
Insulation
Microelectrode Electrical Model Metal rod B
Cell Cd Tissue fluid
(a) Electrode with tip membrane +
+ Membrane Reference
+ - - -
placed within a cell + - + potential electrode
N = Nucleus
C = Cytoplasm + - C - +
-
+ - - +
N -
- ++
+ -
- - - +
+ - - - - - -- +
+ + +
(b) Equivalent circuit + + + +

Electrode R A
Lead wire C To amplifier
resistance s
capacitance w
B
Cd2 Shaft
capacitance

Metal- Rma Cma Cmb Rmb Reference

electrolyte Cd1 electrode
interface Cdi model
Ema Emb

Ri Emp Re Tissue fluid

Figure 5.21 Cytoplasm resistance
Cell
resistance
Membrane Shank
potential capacitance
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Microelectrode Electrical Model A
Rs Cw
Figure 5.21 Cd2
B

(b) Equivalent circuit

Rma Cma Cmb Rmb
Cdi
Ema Emb

Ri Emp Re
Rma Rs, Ri, Re, and Rmb are very
(c) Simplified equivalent circuit small compared to Rma.

A
Emp Cma
Membrane
and 0 Cd + Cw
action
potential
E
B
Ema - Emb

34
 Calculation for Resistance Rs
Rs in metallic microelectrodes without
:glass coating
where Rs = resistance ohms (Ώ)
P P = Resistivity of the infinite solution
Rs 
4r outside electrode = 70 Ώ.cm for
physiological saline
70cm r = tip radius ( ~0.5 um for 1 um
Rs 

43.14 0.5 * 104 cm  electrode) = 0.5 x10-4 cm

 111 .4 K
 Calculation for Resistance Rs
Rs of glass coated metallic microelectrode is 1-2
:order of magnitude higher

where Rs = resistance
2P ohms (Ώ)
Rs  P = Resistivity of the
r infintie solution outside
23.7cm  electrode) = 3.7 Ώcm for 3
3.140.1 * 104 cm 3.14 180 
Rs 
M KCl
r = tip radius typically 0.1 u
 13.5 M m = 0.1 x 10-4 cm
a = taper angle (~ p/ 180)
Capacitance of Microelectrode
Capacitance of C2 has units pF/cm

C2 
0.55e 
R
ln  
r

Where e = dielectric constant which for

glass = 4
R = outside tip radius
r = inside tip radius
Capacitance of Microelectrode
Find C of glass microelectrode if the outer radius is 0.2 um
and the inner radius = 0.15 um

C2 
0.55e 

(0.55)( 4)
 7 .7
pF
 R  0.2 m  cm
ln   ln  
r  0.15m 
Glass Micropipette
A B Rt
A
Rma Cma Membrane
and
action 0
Ema Cd = Ct
potential
Emp
Em
Rt
Cd Cmb Rmb B
(b)
Ej Em = Ej + Et + Ema- Emb
Emb
Et
Ri Re
(a) Emp Rt = all the series resistance lumped together
(ranges from 1 to 100 MW)
Ct = total distributed capacitance lumped
Figure 5.22 together (total is tens of pF)
(a) Equivalent circuit. Em = all the dc potentials lumped together
(b) Simplified equivalent circuit.
Behaves like a low-pass filter.

39
Practical Hints in Using Electrodes
 Ensure that all parts of a metal electrode that will touch the electrolyte are
made of the same metal.
 Dissimilar metals have different half-cell potentials making an
electrically unstable, noisy junction.
 If the lead wire is a different metal, be sure that it is well insulated.
 Do not let a solder junction touch the electrolyte. If the junction must
touch the electrolyte, fabricate the junction by welding or mechanical
clamping or crimping.
 For differential measurements, use the same material for each electrode.
 If the half-cell potentials are nearly equal, they will cancel and minimize
the saturation effects of high-gain, DC coupled amplifiers.
 Electrodes attached to the skin frequently fall off.
 Use very flexible lead wires arranged in a manner to minimize the force
exerted on the electrode.
 Tape the flexible wire to the skin a short distance from the electrode,
making this a stress-relief point.

40
Practical Hints in Using Electrodes
 A common failure point in the site at which the lead wire is attached to
the electrode.
 Repeated flexing can break the wire inside its insulation.
 Prove strain relief by creating a gradual mechanical transition between the
wire and the electrode.
 Use a tapered region of insulation that gradually increases in diameter from
that of the wire towards that of the electrode as one gets closer and closer
to the electrode.
 Match the lead-wire insulation to the specific application.
 If the lead wires and their junctions to the electrode are soaked in
extracellular fluid or a cleaning solution for long periods of time, water and
other solvents can penetrate the polymeric coating and reduce the effective
resistance, making the lead wire become part of the electrode.
 Such an electrode captures other signals introducing unwanted noise.
 Match your amplifier design to the signal source.
 Be sure that your amplifier circuit has an input impedance that is much
greater than the source impedance of the electrodes.

41
Practical Hints in Using Electrodes
Electrocardiography
The measurement scheme in the Fig. shows the electrocardiographic
measurement of the first augmented lead aVR. In order to reduce the
common mode potential of the body with respect to the ground of the
electrocardiograph, an additional electrode is usually used that connects
the right leg of the patient to the ground of the electrocardiograph.

42
 Practical Hints in Using Electrodes
Assume the following measurement condition:
• all cable impedances are negligible;
• the adopted differential amplifier has a gain, A , equal to 100, an input
d

impedance Z = R = 1 MΩ, and an extremely high CMRR;

i i

• a disturbance current I of 0.5 µA flows through the body towards the

db

ground;
• all contact impedances are equal to R = 70 kΩ;
• no buffers are adopted to adapt the impedance at the inputs of the
electrocardiograph;
• no active grounding is adopted.
a. Determine the output V of the differential amplifier due to I .
o db

43
Solution:
According to Fig. 3, the current I flows towards the ground through the
db

electrode connected to the right leg with impedance R = R. This brings the
RL

body to a common mode potential

V = I · R = 35 mV
cm db

44
The electrode half-cell potential becomes a serious problem in
bioelectric signals acquisition because of the tremendous
difference between these DC potentials and the biopotentials.
The DC offset is caused by the half-cell potentials of the electrode-
electrolyte and the electrolyte-skin interface.
What are the strategies used to overcome the effects of the
massive half-cell potential offset.
• Differential DC amplifier to acquire signal thus the DC
component will cancel out.
• Counter Offset-Voltage to cancel half-cell potential.
• AC couple input of amplifier (DC will not pass through).

45