1

Dept. of Mechatronics Engg.

BMES- 813
BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
Dr Mohsin Tiwana
Biopotential Electrodes
 Biopotentials are generated by nerve or muscle
tissue
 The most widely used of all biological
transducers
 Bioelectric phenomena are associated with
almost every organ system
 Bioelectric signals sensed by biopotential
electrodes

Bioelectric signal Abbreviation Biologic source

Electrocardiogram ECG (EKG) Heart (body surface)

Cardiac electrogram - Heart (internally sensed)

Electromyogram EMG Muscle

Electroencephalogram EEG Brain
Electrooptigram EOG Eye dipole field
Electroretinogram ERG Eye retina
Action potential - Nerve or muscle
Electrogastogram EGG Stomach
Galvanic skin response GSR Skin
First impressions
 Biopotential electrodes must conduct current to
sense voltage (V = I.Zin)
 Normally current is very small (but non-zero) and
Zin very large
 Must have small current (< pA) to prevent
instrument from affecting the reading
 Current must flow across the interface between the
body and electronic measuring circuit
 Bioelectrode converts ionic current in body to electronic
current in circuit via electrode-electrolyte interface
 Electrode – Electrolyte Interface
Electrode Electrolyte (neutral charge)
C+, A- in solution
Current flow
Electron flow opposite direction
To conventional current flow C C+
e- C
A- C+
e-
A-

C+ : Cation A- : Anion e- : electron

Fairly common electrode materials: Pt, Carbon, …, Au, Ag,…

Electrode metal is use in conjunction with salt, e.g. Ag-AgCl, Pt-
Pt black, or polymer coats
Electrode – Electrolyte Interface

1) C  C n  ne 
Reduction ← Oxidation →
2) Am  A  me

1) If electrode is made of atom with same material as cation, then this

material gets oxidised and enters the electrolyte as a cation and electrons
remain at the electrode and flow in the external circuit.

2) If anion can be oxidised at the electrode-electrolyte interface to form a

neutral atom, electrons are given to the electrode.

Reactions can go in either direction

Current flow from electrode to electrolyte : Oxidation (Loss of e-)
Current flow from electrolyte to electrode : Reduction (Gain of e-)
Half cell potential (HCP)

 When metal (electrode) in contact with ionic solution

(electrolyte), reaction goes predominantly right or left
(oxidation or reduction) depending on concentration of
ions in solution and equilibrium conditions
 When no net current is flowing reactions still proceed but
rate of reduction equals rate of oxidation (i.e. equilibrium)
 Local concentration of cations and anions near the metal
interface changes, so neutrality of charge in interface region
is not maintained
 Leads to potential difference across interface – half cell
potential
 Half cell potentials determined by material involved,
temperature and ionic concentrations
Measuring half cell potential
 Not possible to measure half cell potential without
introducing another material into the electrolyte to
complete the circuit (hence the half in the term)
 Half cell potentials thus measured with respect to a
hydrogen electrode based on the reaction

 
H 2  2H  2e
Standard half cell potentials for common electrode
materials (at 25 C)

Metal and Reaction Potential E, V

Al  Al3+ + 3e- -1.706
Zn  Zn 2+ + 2e- -0.763
Cr  Cr3+ + 3e- -0.744
Fe  Fe2+ +2e- -0.409
Cd  Cd2+ + 2e- -0.401
Ni  Nie+ +2e- -0.230
Pb  Pb2+ + 2e- -0.126
H2  2H+ + 2e- 0 (by definition)
Ag+Cl-  AgCl + e+ +0.233
2Hg+2Cl-  Hg2Cl2 + 2e- +0.268
Cu  Cu2+ + 2e- +0.340
Cu  Cu+ + e- +0.522
Ag  Ag+ + e- +0.799
Au  Au3+ + 3e- +1.420
Au  Au+ + e+ +`1.680
Nernst equation and ionic availability
 Ionic activity is defined as the availability of an ionic species in
solution to enter into a reaction
 In dilute solutions ionic activity is approximately equal to
ionic concentration
 At higher concentration, intermolecular effects significant so
activity of ions is less than their concentration
 If ionic activities across a membrane are a1 and a2
 Nernst equation may be rewritten as:

RT  a1 
E ln  
nF  a2 
 Nernst equation and HCP
For the general oxidation-reduction reaction

A  B  C  D  ne
The Nernst equation for half cell potential is

RT  aC aD 
EE  0
ln    
nF  a A aB 

where E0 : Standard Half Cell Potential E : Half Cell Potential

a : Ionic Activity (generally same as concentration)

n : Number of valence electrons involved

The skin electrode interface

 Example of EMG electrodes

Polarisation
 Standard HCP measured only when zero current flow across interface.
When current flows, difference between observed HCP and equilibrium
zero current HCP is known as overpotential.

Vp  VR  VC  VA
• Vp is the total overpotential or polarisation potential of the electrode
• VR is the ohmic (resistive) overpotential caused by current flow across
electrode/electrolyte resistance (this resistance can vary with current but not
necessarily linearly)
• VC is the concentration overpotential which results from changes in the
distribution of ions in the electrolyte in the vicinity of the electrode-electrolyte
interface when a current flows.
• VA is the activation overpotential which arises from the fact that reactions in
(1) and (2) in slide 6 involve the expenditure of different activation energies
which are not identical in both directions (oxidation and reduction different).
Polarisable and nonpolarisable electrodes

 Perfectly polarisable electrodes

 would behave like capacitors in that no net charge would actually
cross the electrode-electrolyte interface. Majority of overpotential
from concentration potential.
 These are best approximated, by noble or inert metals (e.g.
platinum) which do not easily oxidize.
 Nonpolarisable electrodes
 require that the current passes freely across the interface without
any expenditure of energy, thus no overpotentials.
 The electrode, which closest approaches a nonpolarizable electrode,
is the silver-silver chloride (Ag-AgCl) electrode.
Electrical Noise from Ag/AgCl electrodes
 Figure shows electrical noise generated for Ag-AgCl electrodes against
purely metallic Ag electrodes.
 the electrical noise evident is of such a frequency and magnitude as to
seriously interfere with the recording of a high quality ecg signal.

Normal Ag/AgCl AgCl redeposited

electrode Ag/AgCl Electrode
with AgCl rubbed off
Motion Artefacts
 Mechanical disturbance of the
distribution of charge at the
electrode/electrolyte interface,
will momentarily change the HCP
until equilibrium is restored.
 Motion artefact mainly affects
polarisable electrode but minimal
for non-polarisable electrode .
 Mechanical disturbances can also
influence Ese(Vep). Removing the
stratum corneum will thus also
have an effect on reducing
sensitivity to motion artefacts by
short-circuiting this source (don’t
abrade too much – irritation!)
Motion artefact
 (a) Metallic Ag electrodes in
agitated physiological saline
solution
 (b) Same electrodes with an
AgCl surface film in agitated
physiological saline solution
 (c) Output from amplifier used
for recordings, when electrodes
are replaced by a 1/5-k
resistor
 Heavy lines under curves
indicate periods of agitation of
saline solution
 Electrode-electrolyte interface equivalent circuit

 The current voltage relationship, are often non-linear and dependent on

the magnitude of the current passing through the electrode
 Electrode characteristics are different for high and low current densities,
are frequency dependent and are also dependent on the current
waveforms
 Capacitance comes from the double layer distribution of charge that
occurs at the electrode-electrolyte interface R d

 High frequency: f→∞ Ztot→??? + -

 Low frequency f→0, Ztot→???. Ehc Rs

Cd : capacitance of electrode-electrolyte interface Cd

Rd : resistance of electrode-electrolyte interface

Rs : resistance of electrolyte and wires
Ehc : half cell potential for electrode

0.25cm2 Metallic silver electrode impedance

The skin electrode interface

anatomy
Equivalent circuit of skin electrode interface

the skin: an additional interface!

? ?
Equivalent circuit of skin electrode interface

the skin: an additional interface!

?
Equivalent circuit of skin electrode interface

the skin: an additional interface!

Equivalent circuit of skin electrode interface

the skin: an additional interface!

Equivalent circuit of skin electrode interface

the skin: an additional interface!

Dominant elements
Impedance vs. frequency
Impedance vs. frequency
Typical electrode/skin impedance

dried exudation of the Sterculia Urens

 F and E are synthetic tree and other species of Sterculia
conductive adhesives, (native to India)
 C and D are Karaya gum
conductive adhesive,
 A and G are wet paste (gel)
electrodes with stainless-
steel conductor,
 G is wet paste Ag - AgCl
electrode and
 H is the same as G but with Typical values of electrode-skin impedance for
a light abrasion of the skin eight different electrode types measured at
0.05Hz, 1 minute after application
Metal plate electrodes
 Large surface
 Ancient (still used!)
 Metal disk with stainless
steel, platinum or gold
coating
 Foam pad version is
disposable, others may be
reused
(a) Metal-plate electrode used for application to limbs.
(b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.
(c) Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with
ECG
 Suction Electrodes
 No straps or adhesives
required
 precordial (chest) ECG
 can only be used for short
periods (why?)
 Small contact area so high
source impedance
compared with metal plate
electrode
 Floating electrodes
Metal disk (no direct contact with skin)
Insulating
Reusable (metal type) package

Double-sided
adhesive-tape
Electrolyte gel
ring
in cavity
(a) (b)
Snap coated with Ag-AgCl External snap
Gel-coated sponge
Disposable Plastic cup Plastic disk
Ag/AgCl
Tack Dead cellular material
Foam pad
Capillary loops Germinating layer
(c)
 Minimize motion artefacts (how?)
 Flexible electrodes
 Body contours are often irregular
 Regularly shaped rigid electrodes may not always
work.
 Example: infants
 Material :
 Polymer or nylon with silver
 Carbon filled silicon rubber (Mylar film)

a) Carbon-filled silicone rubber electrode.

b) Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode.
c) Cross-sectional view of the thin-film electrode in (b).
Internal electrodes
 Needle and wire electrodes for percutaneous
measurement of biopotentials
 Percutaneous = electrode crosses the skin
 e.g. muscle sympathetic nerve activity

(a) Insulated needle electrode.

(b) Coaxial needle electrode.
(c) Bipolar coaxial electrode.
(d) Fine-wire electrode connected
to hypodermic needle, before
being inserted.
(e) Cross-sectional view of skin
and muscle, showing coiled
fine-wire electrode in place.
Fetal ECG Electrodes

Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by means

of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode. (b) Cross-sectional view of suction electrode in place, showing
penetration of probe through epidermis. (c) Helical electrode, which is attached to fetal skin by corkscrew type
action.
 Standards for pregelled electrodes
(AAMI)

 Direct-current offset voltage. “A pair of electrodes connected gel to gel after 1

min of stabilization must exhibit offset voltages no greater than 100mV.
 Combined offset stability and internal noise. “A pair of electrodes connected
gel to gel after 1min of stabilization shall generate a voltage no greater than
150V P-P in the pass band of 0.15 to 100 Hz.”
 Alternating current impedance. “For a pair of electrodes connected gel to gel
the impedance at 10Hz will not exceed 3k. The average for 12 pairs will not
exceed 2k.
 Defibrillation overload recovery. “The absolute value of polarisation potential
of a pair of electrodes connected gel to gel shall not exceed 100 mV, 5 s after
each of four capacitor discharges of 10F charged to 200V”.
 Bias current tolerance. “The observed dc voltage offset change across an
electrode pair connected gel to gel shall not exceed 100mV when subjected to a
continuous 200nA dc current over a period, not exceed 8 hours, as
recommended by the manufacturer.”
References
 Webster chapter 5
 Medical Sensors and Devices, Lecture notes, Johns Hopkins University,
Lecture 7: electrodes
 Biopotential electrodes. A complex interface. Summer School
Timisoara 2002 R. Hinz.