CH 3
CH 3
CH 3
Origin of Biopotentials
Biopotential: An electric
potential that is measured
Between points in living cells,
tissues, and organisms, and
which accompanies all
biochemical processes. Also
describes the transfer of
information between and
within cells
Biopotentials:
- Electrocardiogram(ECG)// heart
-Electroencephalogram(EEG)// brain
-Electroneurogram(ENG)// neurons
-Electromyogram(EMG)// muscles
-Electroretinogram(ERG)// retina
-Others
Electrical Activity of Excitable cells:
- Bioelectric potentials are produced as a result of electro-chemical activity of a certain
class of cells, known as excitable cells, that are components of nervous, muscular, or
glandular tissue.Electrically they exhibit a resting potential and, when appropriately
stimulated, an action potential
-
Resting potential:
- A steady electrical potential difference between its internal and external environments.
- This resting potential of the internal medium lies in the range −40 to −90 mV, relative
to the external medium
Important: Electrically, the cell membrane can be described as a leaky capacitor, since
structurally it is comprised of a thin dielectric material (the lipoprotein complex), which acts as
a charge separator, and yet it has transmembrane ion.
Biopotential Electrodes
Definition: A biopotential electrode is a transducer ( sensor)that senses ion distribution on
the surface of tissue, and converts the ion current to electron current.// the electrode is electronic
so the current is by electrons but in out body the current is ionic , its because of the flow of ions
Key information:
–Electrodes represent an interface between the body and the electronic measuring apparatus.
–Current flows in the measuring circuit for at least a fraction of time over which the measurement is
made.// we want it to be small but it never equals to zero
–Biopotential measurements must be carried out using high-quality electrodes to minimize motion
artifacts and ensure that the measured signal is accurate, stable, and undistorted.
Electrode-Electrolyte Interface:
-Takes place when we keep electrode inside electrolyte
-The transducing function ( converting ionic to electronic current) is carried out by electrodes that
consist of electrical conductors in contact with the aqueous ionic solutions in the body.
-At the interface redox (oxidation “→” –reduction “←”), reactions need to occur for a charge to be transferred
between the electrode and the solution.
-These reactions can be represented in general by the following equations:
Eq 1:
-One atom C of the metal is oxidized to form one cation C+ and giving off one free electron e- to the metal.
-The electron remains as a charge carrier in the electrode, the cation is discharged in the electrolyte
- n is the valence of C.
Eq 2:
-An anion coming to the electrode-electrolyte interface can be oxidized to neutral atom, giving off one or more
free electrons to the electrode.
- m is the valence of A
Half-cell potential
-Simply: When a metal is placed in an electrolyte (i.e., an ionizable) solution, a charge
distribution is created next to the metal/electrolyte interface.//its when a single electrode in an
electrolyte.
- Details:
● When the metal comes in contact with the solution, the reaction represented by Eq 1 begins
immediately.
● Initially, the reaction goes predominantly either to the left or to the right, depending on the
concentration of cations in solution and the equilibrium conditions for that particular reaction.
● The local concentration of cations in the solution at the interface changes, which affects the anion
concentration at this point as well.
● The net result is that neutrality of charge is not maintained in this region.
● This localized charge distribution causes an electric potential,called a half-cell potential, to be
developed across the interface between the metal and the electrolyte solution.
● Some separation of charges at the metal–electrolyte interface results in an electric double layer, wherein
one type of charge is dominant on the surface of the metal and the opposite charge is distributed in
excess in the immediately adjacent electrolyte// discussed later
-where H2 gas bubbled over a platinum electrode is the source of hydrogen molecules.
-The platinum serves as a catalyst for the reaction on the left hand side of the equation and as an acceptor of the
generated electrons.
Important Note:
- Typically, biopotential measurements are made by utilizing two similar electrodes composed of
the same metal (e.g. ECG).
- The two half-cell potentials for these electrodes would be equal in magnitude.
- The differential amplifier attached to these two electrodes would amplify the Biopotential
(ECG) signal.But the half-cell potentials would be cancelled out
Polarization
• Zero net current ⇒ Half cell potential (HCP) is observed
• Nonzero net current ⇒ polarization of the electrode ⇒ overpotential
• Overpotential = HCP (at nonzero net current) - equilibrium HCP( Ehc)
• Overpotential is the result of an alteration in the charge distribution in the solution in contact
with the electrodes.
• This effect is known as polarization and can result in diminished electrode performance,
especially under conditions of motion
When two ionic solutions of different concentration are separated by semipermeable membrane, an electric
potential E exists across the membrane, based upon the relative activity of the permeable ions in each of these
solutions.
This Equation represents a specific application of the Nernst equation to the reaction of
For the general oxidation reduction reaction, the Nernst equation for half cell potential is :
-An electrode–electrolyte interface is not required for a potential difference to exist. If two electrolytic solutions
are in contact and have different concentrations of ions with different ionic mobilities, a potential difference,
known as a liquid-junction potential
where μ+ and μ− are the mobilities of the positive and negative ions, and a and a are the
activities of the two solutions. T
Essential Background/ Hole fhem:
Formation of the Electric Double Layer:
● When a metal or electrode is immersed in an electrolyte solution, an electric double layer
forms at the interface between the electrode and the electrolyte.
● The electric double layer consists of two layers of charges: one layer associated with the
charged surface of the electrode and the other with the oppositely charged ions in the
solution.
The capacitance of the double layer is influenced by the surface area of the electrode, the dielectric
constant of the electrolyte, and the distance between charges in the double layer.
Side notes:
-None of these types exits 100% in life
-If recording is needed and the person is moving, noise could come up , in normal cases we
would perform fourier series/ transform and get frequency of noise. However for an ECG:
frequency ranges from 1—> 1.5 Hz its too low we cant add a filter . Instead we change the
electrode type.
-Thats why Ag-AgCl is used in recording while Pt is used in simulation
- when using electrodes we start off with the minimally invasive , when its needed we increase the
invasiveness by changing the electrode
-Disposable electrodes: to avoid contamination and low stability
- non polarizable are resistor like thats why when a person moves there is no noise
- Usually equipments have a lifespan of 5-10 years , we perform calibration to make them stay
functional closest to their optimal lifespan ( in the data sheet)
- The silver chloride is relatively insoluble in aqueous solutions → does not dissociate into its constituent
ions (silver ions, Ag⁺, and chloride ions, Cl⁻) in water.⇒ this surface remains stable
- The behavior of the Ag/AgCI electrode is governed by two chemical reactions.
- Silver chloride's rate of precipitation and of returning to solution is a constant Ks known as the solubility product.
- The half-cell potential of this electrode is quite stable when it is placed in an electrolyte containing Cl-
as the principal anion, provided the activity of the Cl remains stable..For biological fluids aCl-=1.
- The 1st two terms are constants and the third is determined by ionic activity. In this case, it is the
activity of the Cl− ion =~1
- The half-cell potential of this electrode is consequently quite stable when it is placed in an electrolyte
containing Cl− as the principal anion, provided the activity of the Cl− remains stable.
Fabrication of Ag-AgCl Electrode:
A. Electrolytic process
1. The electrode is immersed in an electrolyte bath in which the
principal anion of the electrolyte is Cl−
2. Silver–silver chloride electrodes of this type can be fabricated
by starting with a silver base and electrolytically growing the silver
chloride layer on its surface.:
- Current circulate , pushes Cl- by Ag+ ( by oxidation)
- Cl- deposits on Ag
3. Although an electrode produced in this way can be used for
most biomedical measurements
4. It is not a robust structure, and pieces of the silver chloride film
can be chipped away after repeated use of the structure(fene 7efa b ede )
→ which can cause the electrode half cell potential to be unstable and
noisy
- Ag-AgCl is more than the Ag equivalent electrode
- An electrochemical cell is made up: in which the Ag electrode on which the AgCl layer is to be
deposited serves as anode and another piece of Ag—having a surface area much greater than that of the
anode— serves as cathode
- a series resistance limits the peak current, thereby controlling the maximal rate of reaction
- .As the thickness of the deposited AgCl layer increases, the rate of reaction decreases and the current
drops.
- This situation continues, and the current approaches zero asymptotically. ( bs bl 7a2e2a bdl fe current
5fefe)
-when an Ag/ AgCl electrode is in contact with biological fluids, the activity of the Ag+ ion must be very low
and of the same order of magnitude as the solubility product
B. Sintering process
- Rd and Cd
→ the impedance associated with the electrode-electrolyte interface and
polarization at this interface.
→ Cd is the capacitance of the electric double layer
⇒Rd is the resistance to current to flow across the
electrode-electrolyte interface The leakage resistance across this
double layer.
- Rs is the series resistance associated with interface effects and due to resistance
in the electrolyte→ associated with the conductivity of the electrolyte.
-The battery Ehc : the half-cell potential.
- All the components of this equivalent circuit have values
determined by the electrode material and its geometry, and- to
a lesser extent- by the material of the electrolyte and its
concentration.
- When biopotentials are recorded from the surface of the skin, we must consider the interface between
the electrode-electrolyte and the skin
- Transparent electrolyte gel containing Cl- is used to maintain good contact between the electrode and
the skin.// gel electrolyte → resistor with zero half cell
Epidermis is constantly renewing itself
- Stratum corneum: outermost layer of dead cells, constantly removed
- Stratum granulosum: cells begin to die and loose nuclear material //increase capacitance
- Stratum germinativum: cells divide ( mitosis) and grow and displaced outward
Motion artifact:
• When polarizable electrode is in contact with an electrolyte, a double layer of charge forms at the
interface.
• Movement of the electrode will disturb the distribution of the charge and results in a momentary
change in the half cell potential until equilibrium is reached again.
• Motion artifact is less minimum for nonpolarizable electrodes.
• Signal due to motion has low frequency so it can be filtered out when measuring a biological signal of
high frequency component such as EMG or axon action potential.
• However, for ECG, EEG and EOG whose frequencies are low it is recommended to use nonpolarizable
electrode to avoid signals due to motion artifact.// it cant be filtered.
Full Circuit Model of Electrode skin interface:
-The deeper layers of the skin contain: the vascular and nervous components of the skin as well as the sweat
glands, sweat ducts, and hair follicles.
-These layers are similar to other tissues in the body and, with the exception of the sweat glands(Dermis w
subcutaneous ) do not bestow any unique electrical characteristics on the skin
-Dotted(sweat glands): can be neglected especially in hospitals bkon klo mkyaf
- Alter skin transport or deliver drugs by : pores produced by laser ,ultrasound or by iontophoresis
- If the effect of the stratum corneum can be reduced, a more stable electrode results. effect of the stratum
corneum by removing it, or at least a part of it, from under the electrode.
- from vigorous rubbing with a pad soaked in acetone to abrading the stratum corneum with sandpaper
to puncture it. this tends to short out Ese, Ce, and Re, thereby improving the stability of the signal, but
the stratum corneum can regenerate in as short a time as 24 h.
- They also point out that removal of the body’s outer protective barrier makes that region of skin more
susceptible to irritation from the electrolyte gel. Therefore, the choice of a gel material is important.
- Psychogenic electrodermal response or the galvanic skin reflex (GSR) is the contribution of the sweat
glands and sweat ducts.
- The fluid secreted by sweat glands contains Na+ , K+ , and Cl− ions, the concentrations of which differ
from those in the extracellular fluid. Thus, there is a potential difference between the lumen of the sweat
duct and the dermis and subcutaneous layers. → Ep
- These components are often neglected when we consider biopotential electrodes unless the electrodes
are used to measure the electrodermal response or GSR
—-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Practical Electrodes for Biomedical Measurements
1.Body surface 2.Percutaneous 3.implantable 4.Arrays 5.Microelectrodes
Body surface: 1. Metal plate : limb , disk , foam pad 2. Floating 3. Flexible
Percutaneous: percutaneous , suction , helical
Implantable: wire loop, platinum sphere, multielement depth
Arrays microfabrictaed: one, 2, 3 dimensional
Microelectrodes: metal, glass pipet, glass pipet coated with metal film.
A. Metal Plate Electrodes:
• Consists of a metallic conductor in contact with the skin with a thin layer of an electrolyte gel between
the metal and the skin to establish this contact.
- limb electrode:
Floating electrodes:
However Figure (c) shows a cross section of disposable modification of the floating electrode.
Its structure is basically the same as that of the disposable metal-plate electrode but it has one added
component—a disk of thin, open-cell foam saturated with electrolyte gel.
-The foam is firmly affixed to the metal-disk electrode, thereby providing an intermediate electrolyte-gel layer
between the electrode and the skin.
- Because the foam is fixed to the metal disk, the gel contained within it at the disk interface is mechanically
stable.
- The other surface of the foam that is placed against the skin is able to move with the skin, thereby diminishing
the motion artifact that sometimes results from differential movement between the skin and the electrolyte gel
Flexible electrodes:// el material tkon flexible and its thin
• We use it since thick layer would come up in the imaging and ruin the image
• Figure (a) shows a carbon-filled silicone rubber compound in the form of a thin strip or disk is used as
the active element of an electrode.
• The carbon particles in the silicone make it an electric conductor.
• The electrode is used in the same way as a similar type of metal plate electrode.
• A pin connector is pushed into the lead connector hole, and the electrode is used in the same way as a
similar type of metal-plate electrode
INTERNAL ELECTRODES:
1. percutaneous electrodes, in which the electrode itself or the lead wire crosses the skin,
2. entirely internal electrodes, in which the connection is to an implanted electronic circuit
such as a radiotelemetry transmitter
Needle EMG demonstration
Percutaneous:
Percutaneous electrode
Background:
- Thick needles can damage the muscles
• Smaller than skin surface electrodes and do not require special electrolytic coupling fluid, since natural
body fluids serve this function.
• A The insulated needle electrode
—(figure a) consists of a solid needle, usually made of stainless steel, with a sharp point.
—An insulating material coats the shank of the needle and leave the tip of the needle exposed.
-b and c Coaxial needle electrodes:
—needle electrodes with running one or more insulated wires down the lumen of a standard
hypodermic needle and filling the remainder of the lumen with an insulating material such as an epoxy
resin
—Used to pick up very localized signals in tissue.
—-The oblique cross section of the central wire serves as the active electrode
—-The needle itself is connected to ground through the shield of a coaxial cable, thereby extending the
coaxial structure to its very tip
C: –- two wires are placed within the lumen of the needle and can be connected differentially so as to
be sensitive to electrical activity only in the immediate vicinity of the electrode tip.
– does the bipolar contain both active and reference electrode
-d Fine wire electrodes:
- Fine wires introduced into tissue using a hypodermic needle, which is then withdrawn. This wire can
remain in tissue for acute or chronic measurements.
- its insulated wire but its tip isnt insulated which is bent back on itself to form J shape; this serves as a
barb holding the wire in place in the muscle.
-To remove the wire, the technician applies a mild uniform force to straighten out the barb
and pulls it out through the wire’s track
- mnst3ml el needle mnshn ma yt3aj el wire
- coiled: implanted in active muscles , because fine wires could break, cause irritation or infection as
mucle moves or slip.
However, it can damage the muscle( fibrosis)
Usage:
it is placed in a particular muscle, it obtains an EMG from that muscle acutely and can then be removed
Suction electrode:
• A sharp-pointed probe in the center of a suction cup can be applied to the fetal presenting part.
• On the back of the suction electrode is a reference electrode that contacts the fluid, and the signal seen
between these two electrodes is the voltage drop across the resistance of the stratum corneum
• The potentials beneath the stratum corneum allows recording fetal ECGs that have peak amplitudes of
the order of 50 to 700 µV.
Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram( heartbeats) during labor, by means of intracutaneous
needles
Helical electrodes:
• It consists of a stainless steel needle, shaped like one turn of a helix.
• This electrode can be attached to the fetal presenting part by rotating it so that the needle twists just
beneath the surface of the skin.
• The electrode remains firmly attached, and because of the shortness of the helical needle, it does not
penetrate deep enough into the skin to cause significant risk to the fetus.
(Implantable):
when implantable wireless transmission is used, we want to implant electrodes
within the body and not penetrate the skin with any wires. In this case, the radio
transmitter is implanted in the body
(Arrays): since fabricating implantable electrode arrays one at a time using clusters of fine
insulated wires is time-consuming and expensive and somewhat the clusters are different.
• Microfabrication technology
• Two-dimensional extension of one-dimensional array
• Usage: mapping of electrical potentials on the surface of the heart
• Ask if the leads hne ele bwslo 3l instrumentation aw el electrodes mwslen using conductors mn 8er jha
SUPPORTED-METAL MICROELECTRODES :
• The etched metal needle is supported in a larger metallic shaft that can be insulated. This shaft serves as
a sturdy mechanical support for the microelectrode and as a means of connecting it to its lead wire.
Glass-pipet microelectrode
• Consists of a fine glass capillary drawn to a very narrow point and filled with
an electrolytic solution ( KCL)
• The electrolytic solution serves as the contact between the interior of the cell
and a larger electrode located in the shank of the pipette.
• These electrodes also suffer from fabrication difficulty.
• Only the metal tip is exposed
-
Glass micropipet or probe, coated with metal film
• Is achieved by depositing a metal film over the outside surface of a glass micropipette.
• The metal are insulated by an additional film up to a point very close to the tip of the electrode
structure.
• Advantage: flexibility due to the capability of being able to make films of different metals on the
micropipette surface without having to worry about the strength of the metal.
How its made:
- A solid glass rod or glass tube is drawn to form the micropipet.
- A metal film is deposited uniformly on this surface to a thickness of the order of tenths of a micrometer.
- A polymeric insulation is then coated over this, leaving just the tip, with the metal film exposed