Mammalian Transport

Systems:
The circulatory
system
The Circulatory system
The circulatory system is responsible
for pumping ______ around the body.
We need blood to be taken around the
body because blood contains ________
and _______. These are needed so
that all the ____ in our bodies can
produce _____ through _________.

The main organs in the circulatory

system are the _____, and the blood
vessels.

Words – energy, heart, blood, glucose,

respiration, oxygen, cells
Why do we need a Transport
System?
 Why do we need a Transport
System but an amoeba doesn’t?
Unlike an organism such as an amoeba, humans
have a small surface area:volume ratio and a
large diffusion distance to reach all cells.

So, diffusion alone would be too slow to meet

the demands for oxygen, glucose and the
removal of waste from the cells.

Humans are also more active than an amoeba

and therefore their requirements for oxygen,
glucose etc. are also greater.

Extension: What problems

associated with their size do
these organisms encounter?
What adaptation is
shown by the
amphibian
circulatory system?

How can this make

the amphibian more
efficient at
supplying oxygen
than the fish?
The Human Circulatory System
The Double Circulatory System
• Each time a blood cell goes around your
body, it goes through the heart twice,
(double circulation).
• The systemic circuit carries oxygenated
blood around the body in the arteries,
and deoxygenated blood back to the
heart along the veins.
• The pulmonary circuit carries
deoxygenated blood from the heart to
the lungs to be oxygenated. The blood
then returns to the heart to be
pumped around the systemic circuit.
Structure of the Heart
Oxygenated or deoxygenated?
Label the heart
 Structure of the Heart
Pulmonary Artery Aorta

Vena Cava Pulmonary Vein

Right Atrium
Left Atrium

Semilunar
Tricuspid Valve
Valve

Tendinous cords Bicuspid Valve

Right Ventricle
Left Ventricle

Septum
 1. Deoxygenated
blood (i.e. blood
without
The Heart 4. Oxygenated blood
from the lungs enters
oxygen)from the through the
body enters pulmonary vein into
through the vena the left atrium
cava into the right
atrium

2. It’s then pumped

through the 5. It’s then pumped
atrioventricular valve through the
into the right atrioventricular valve
ventricle into the left
ventricle

3. It’s then pumped 6. It’s then pumped

through the semi-lunar out of the aorta to
valve up to the lungs the rest of the
through the pulmonary body
artery
Drag the labels to the correct numbered boxes
on the diagram of the blood system.
Describe
the flow of
the blood
through the
heart
starting
with vena
cava (6)
Controlled circulation
 Beating of the Heart
• Regulated by pacemaker (patch of muscle found near
right atria)
• Pacemaker sends electrical signals through the
cardiac muscle causing the muscles to contract
The Cardiac Cycle
Atria Contract – ATRIAL SYSTOLE
1. The walls of the atria contract.
2. Volume of the atria decreases.
3. Pressure inside the atria
increases.
4. When the pressure in the atria
is greater than the pressure in
the ventricles, the AV valves
open.
5. Blood flows into the ventricles.
 The Cardiac
Cycle
Heart at Rest – DIASTOLE
1. Atria and ventricle walls
relax.
2. Semi lunar valves close
stopping blood in the
arteries flowing back into
the heart.
3. Blood flows into the atria
from the vena cava and
the pulmonary vein filling
the heart.
The Cardiac Ventricles Contract –

Cycle VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE

1. Ventricles contract causing
their volume to decrease.
2. Pressure inside ventricles
increases.
3. Pressure in ventricles becomes
greater than pressure in the
atria.
4. AV valves close
5. Pressure in ventricles becomes
greater than pressure in the
arteries.
6. Semi-lunar valves open allowing
blood to flow into arteries.
Answer the questions
Multiple-choice quiz
Getting things in order
 Blood

What is blood? What do its different

components do?
Components of
Blood
 Below is an image that a doctor might see under a
microscope when looking at a blood smear (blood
spread out on a microscope slide).

Platelets
White blood cell: Pathologists
Lymphocyte study blood
cells to spot
diseases and
abnormalities.

White blood cell:

Red blood Phagocyte
Plasma cell
 Red Blood Cells
• Biconcave-shaped (increases S.A. and allows flexibility).
• Large surface area so more oxygen can diffuse in and
out easily.
• Full of haemoglobin (combines with O2 to form
oxyhaemoglobin).

• Red blood cells do not

have a nucleus, so
there is room for more
haemoglobin

• Like all blood cells, red

blood cells are made in
the bone marrow.
Haemoglobin
 White Blood Cells
White blood cells are made in the bone marrow and form
a vital part of our immune system and protect us from
pathogens (disease causing microorganisms).

There are two types of white blood cells you need to

know about:
 Phagocytes
• Phagocytes can be recognized by their nucleus
which has several lobes.
• They kill pathogens which enter the body by
engulfing (‘eating’) them which involves a change
in cell shape, and digesting them.
• Dead phagocytes often contain dead bacteria,
forming pus.
• Phagocytes also dispose of old red blood cells
 Phagocytosis

After ingestion, the bacterium is broken down by

digestive enzymes.
How Phagocytes Work?
 Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes can be
recognized by their large
round nucleus which takes
up most of the cell.

They kill pathogens which

enter the body by
producing antibodies
(special proteins).

Each lymphocyte produces

only one type of antibody
 White Blood Cells

Which 2 types of cells can be seen in this blood sample?

 How do antibodies work?
Each lymphocyte can produce only
one specific antibody (in huge
quantities!) so there are
thousands of different
lymphocytes in your body.

• Antibodies attach to pathogens

and disable or kill them.
• Antibodies make pathogens
clump together so phagocytes
can engulf them more easily.
• Some antibodies can attach to
 Platelets
• Platelets serve as body's
first line of defence to
prevent blood loss and are
important for blood
clotting.
• They are not really cells
and have no nucleus.
• Clotting also prevents
pathogens from entering
the wound.
 How does clotting work?
• When tissues are damaged
they release chemicals which
activate platelets causing them
to clump together at the injury
site.
• The chemicals produced by the
tissues and platelets cause a
soluble protein in the blood
plasma (fibrinogen) to change
into insoluble fibrin.
• Fibrin turns into a mesh that
traps cells and more platelets
to plug the wound
 How does clotting work?
• On injury/cut platelets become
activated platelets.

• They change their shape,

become sticky and build up on a
blood vessel wall to form a plug.

• Blood plasma contains a soluble

protein (fibrinogen) that is
changed into fibrin (insoluble),
when the chemicals (from the
platelets and damaged tissues)
are released.
 Questions
1. A new blood test was developed by Australian
scientists before the Sydney Olympics to detect the
presence of a drug called EPO. This drug increases
the number of red blood cells in the body. Explain
fully why taking this drug might increase an
athlete’s performance.

2. Some athletes have been caught having blood

transfusions to increase their performance – can
you explain how a transfusion would help them?
 Questions
3. A shortage of iron in the diet can lead to
anaemia. This is a disorder where there is a
shortage of red blood cells.
Explain why people with anaemia often feel tired?

4. Carbon monoxide is a gas produced by faulty gas

fires and boilers (used to heat houses). When
carbon monoxide gets into the bloodstream, it joins
permanently with haemoglobin and prevents
haemoglobin from joining with oxygen.
Explain why carbon monoxide from faulty fires can
kill humans.
 Questions
5. Describe the action of the 2 main types
(phagocytes and lymphocytes) of white blood cells
in your body.

6. Complete the question sheet at the end of your

pack
 Bacteria
• Unicellular (single-celled) or
filamentous
• No nucleus
• Circular DNA
• Cell wall present
• Examples – bacteria
Pneumococcus and
cyanobacteria (blue green
algae)
 Viruses
• Smallest microbe.
• Can reproduce only inside
living cells ie a host.
• They have no cellular
structure but have a protein
coat and contain one type of
nucleic acid, either DNA or
RNA.
• Examples the influenza virus
that causes ‘flu’ and the
HIV virus that causes
AIDS.
 THE IMMUNE RESPONSE

The “immune response” is the mechanism the body uses to fight against
pathogens that have got through the physical barriers and invaded the
body.
It involves different types of cells (white blood cells) and molecules that
interact to produce a fast, efficient defence mechanism.

Cells in the immune response

• Phagocytes: Destroy microbes by engulfing and digesting

them.
• Lymphocytes: Involved in producing antibodies to help fight
microbes. There are two important
types of lymphocytes:
• B-lymphocytes: Release antibodies into the blood.
• T-lymphocytes: Identify pathogen and cause B-
lymphocytes to divide so lots
Molecules involved in the immune response

• Antigens: Chemical markers (usually proteins) on the

surface of all cells. Used to identify the cell as
‘self’ or ‘foreign’.

• Antibodies: Protein molecules that bind to antigens, causing:

• Pathogens to clump together, allowing phagocytes
to engulf them more efficiently.
• Pathogens to be more quickly identified by
phagocytes as they act as a ‘label’ on them
• Neutralisation of any toxic molecules produced by
pathogens.
• Causing bacterial cells to burst open.
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE 1 – Non-Specific Immunity

The initial response to infection is the SAME for every

pathogen.
Phagocytes recognise the invading cell’s antigens as
different to the bodies antigens, and engulf the invading
cell and digests them:
Pathogen

Phagocyte Antigens on
pathogen
 NON SPECIFIC IMMUNITY DOES NOT INVOLVE
ANTIBODIES
• It relies on phagocytes detecting and engulfing
pathogens by themselves.
• Therefore it is: SLOW and UNABLE TO DEAL
WITH LARGE-SCALE INFECTIONS
• If the body is to cope with large-scale infections, it
must be able to respond MORE EFFICIENTLY to the
presence of pathogens and destroy them faster than
they can reproduce.
• This will require fast detection of pathogens and a
specific response to them.
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE 2 – Specific Immunity

The non-specific response is not very

efficient.
Pathogens will not be destroyed quickly
enough to prevent them causing symptoms
of disease.
Phagocytes can engulf pathogens much
more effectively if they are ‘helped’ by
specific antibodies that target the
particular pathogen in question.

How are B-cells that produce the correc

t antibodies produced in response to infe
ction?
• PHAGOCYTES RESPOND MUCH MORE
EFFECTIVELY WHEN THEY ARE ‘HELPED OUT’ BY
ANTIBODIES THAT TARGET PATHOGENS

• Every pathogen has different antigens.

• Therefore, the antibody that binds to the antigen
must also be different.
• Each B-cell only produces ONE type of antibody.
• Therefore, the correct B-cell must be selected in
response to each infection!
Specific Immunity & Immunological Memory

Our ability to fight against disease depends on how quickly we can

produce specific antibodies against pathogens that infect us.
Once we have had a disease once, we don’t show symptoms of the
same disease again.
Why not?
• Production of antibodies to subsequent infections from the
same pathogen happens faster and in larger quantities than the
initial infection produced.
• This is because some of the ‘army’ of B-cells produced are
stored in lymph nodes. This allows faster selection and so
faster antibody production than before. MEMORY CELLS
• So, our bodies produce enough antibodies to make the response
to infection so rapid that pathogens are destroyed before we
can start to see symptoms of disease…
… so we are IMMUNE to that particular pathogen!
First Second
exposure exposure

Describe and explain the trends shown by this graph

• The secondary response is much faster and more
effective than the first (primary)response. The
number of antibodies in the blood rises to a high
level, killing the microorganisms before they have
time to multiply to a point when they would cause
disease.

• What do you think are the advantages of producing

memory cells?

• MORE antibodies produced FASTER therefore can

respond to infection more effectively.
 Vaccination
• Lymphocytes recognise the
antigens and multiply exactly
as if the pathogen had
entered the bloodstream.
They produce antibodies and
form memory cells which are
stored making the person
immune to the disease. This
ensures a secondary response
is much quicker and confers
immunity.
 Antibody production
• Antigens
– are foreign substances, usually proteins
found on pathogens (eg. Virus & bacteria)
– Enable the pathogens to be recognized as a
non-self substance.
• There are two types of immunity:
– Active immunity
• This means that your body makes the
antibodies needed to attack the pathogen
– Passive immunity
• This means that you are given the antibodies,
but have not made them yourself.
 Antibody production

• Active immunity
– Natural acquired
immunity
• When a person is
exposed to an antigen
and makes antibodies
eg when you have
chicken pox.
 Antibody production
Vaccine is a substance
consisting of weakened,
dead or parts of a
pathogen or antigen that
cause immunity when
injected into the body.
This process is called
artificial acquired
immunity, and it
encourages our bodies to
make the correct
antibodies so that if we
ever get the real pathogen,
we will be ready.
 Antibody production
• Passive immunity
– Innate Immunity -
• Developed when
antibodies are
transferred
from mother to
her unborn baby
through the
placenta or
mother's milk
• Developed when
antibodies are
injected into
the body.
 Antibody production
• Transplants and tissue
rejection
– This is a problem in transplant
surgery, when the donated
tissue is treated as foreign
and attacked by the white
blood cells.
– A doctor will try to overcome
this by taking tissue from
close relatives, and giving the
patient immunosuppressive
drugs, to suppress the immune
system. However this leaves
the patient open to the threat
of all pathogens.
1. Use your knowledge of specific
immunity to describe what is
happening during the primary and
secondary immune response shown
on your graph.
Why does this pattern mean the
patient won’t show any symptoms of
infection as a result of the second
exposure?
2. Edward Jenner was working ‘blind’ –
he had a theory that what he was
doing would work, but he couldn’t
explain why it worked!
a. Write a letter to a newspaper
of the time explaining why
Jenner’s experiment worked.
Use what we now know about
B- and T-cells, antigens and
antibodies in your answer, but b. This is a conversation between
a doctor and a sceptical mother
make it
in 1856. Does this prove that
UNDERSTANDABLE! vaccination doesn’t work? What
other explanations can you
offer for the boy’s death?
Things to do
 Arteries, veins and capillaries
Arteries carry high pressure Capillaries have thin walls
blood away from the heart. (one cell thick) to allow
They have smaller lumen and glucose and oxygen to pass
no valves. through. Also used to
connect arteries to veins.

“Lumen”

Veins carry low pressure blood back to the

heart. They have thinner, less elastic walls and
have valves to prevent backflow of blood.
Arteries, veins and
capillaries
 Arteries

Vessels which carry blood away from the heart

 Arteries • Carry blood away from the heart and
under high pressure so must be able
Structure to withstand this pressure.
to Function 1. Lumen is small to maintain high
pressure.
2. Wall thick and contains collagen,
(fibrous protein) to give it strength
to withstand pressure.
3. Wall has elastic tissue that allows
the wall to stretch and recoil when
heart pumps. Felt as a pulse.
4. Wall has smooth muscle that can
contract and constrict the artery.
5. Endothelium is folded and can
unfold when the artery stretches.
 Vein • Carry blood back to the heart.
Structure Blood is at low pressure and walls
do not need to be thick.
to Function 1. Lumen large to ease the flow of
blood.
2. Walls have thinner layers of
collagen, smooth muscle and
elastic tissue. They do not
stretch and recoil.
3. Contain valves to help the blood
flow back to the heart and
prevent it flowing in the
opposite direction. Blood is
helped to move along by muscles
contracting.
Cross Section of an Artery
• Note the
thick layer of
muscle.
• Narrow lumen
• What do you
think is
visible in the
lumen?
 Spot the difference?
A B

Can you tell which is an artery and which is a vein? How?

Arteries
and Veins
• Thick
muscular
wall.

• Thin layer
of muscle
 Cross Section of Veins

Veins carry blood away from the heart

Veins
 Veins and Valves

• As the pressure is so
low – valves prevent
backflow of blood.
• They posses half moon
or semi lunar valves,
formed from the
endothelium.
 Capillaries
Link arteries and veins,
taking blood close to
almost every cell in the
body.
 HEART RATE
• Resting heart rate will vary according to
age, gender and other factors.
• Normally the heart beats at around 70
beats per minute but this can change
according to circumstances.

• Exercise
• Adrenaline
• Smoking
• Sleep

• Changes in heart rate are brought about by

nerve impulses from the medulla in the Heart Beat Animation
brain.
 THE HEART
RATE
• Heart beat initiated by ‘pacemaker’
• Small group of specialised cells at top of
right atrium
• These cells receive two sets of nerves
– One set speeds up HR – the accelerator
nerve
– One set slows down HR – the decelerator
nerve

• These nerves originate from a centre in brain (medulla)

• The medulla receives messages from receptors in the
aorta and carotid artery that are sensitive to blood
pressure and levels of CO2 in blood.
 HEART RATE
• If blood pressure rises, nervous
impulses reduce HR.
• Fall in blood pressure causes rise
in HR.
• Increased CO2 contributes to
faster HR
• HR adjusted to meet needs of
body at rest, exertion or
excitement
• Release of adrenaline from adrenal
glands, caused by excitement,
activity, stress increases rate and
strength of heart beat
 Adrenaline
• When you are frightened or
angry, your adrenal glands
secrete the hormone
adrenaline.
• Adrenaline prepares the
body for action and is often
known as the fight or flight
hormone.
 The Effects of Adrenaline
 The breathing rate increases and
breaths become deeper taking in more
oxygen.
 The heart beats faster, sending more
blood to the muscles so they can receive
more oxygen and glucose for respiration.
 Blood is diverted away from intestines
and to muscles.
 In the liver, stored carbohydrate is
converted to glucose which can be used
in respiration.
 Mental alertness is increased so
reactions are faster.
 Pupils dilate, increasing sensitivity to
movement.
 Smoking and the Heart
Smoking can have a profound effect on the health of the
heart.
1. It can cause a blockage or narrowing of the arteries
including the coronary arteries.
2. This is because it stimulates the deposition of fats
(cholesterol) in the blood vessels.
3. Carbon monoxide means that less oxygen can reach
cells resulting in increased rates of anaerobic
respiration and a build up of lactic acid.
4. This can result in a heart attack and angina (pains in
the heart)
5. Nicotine also increases the heart rate and thus blood
pressure making the heart work harder.
Control of heart rate (HR)
 The effect of Exercise on heart
Hypothesis – Rate of exerciserate
will affect heart rate.
Prediction - As the rate of exercise increases the heart
rate will your
1. Take increase.
resting heart (pulse) rate for 15 seconds .
2. Multiply by 4 to get the heart rate in 1 minute
3. Set the metronome at 100 beats.
4. Do step ups to the metronome beat for 1 minute on the
bottom step of the stairs.
5. Immediately take your heart (pulse) rate for 15
seconds.
6. Multiply by 4 to get the heart rate in 1 minute.
7. Wait for 2 minutes and repeat steps 3 – 6 for
metronome
Risk assessmentbeats of 125,
– Wear flat150, and 175. Check for
trainers/shoes.
heart and/or lung conditions. Anyone who starts to
struggle with the exercise should stop.
Use bottom step of stairs only.
1. Fill in the table with your results.
2. Draw the best graph possible for your
results.
3. Describe the graph of your results.
4. Explain why the heart has responded to
exercise in this manner. (Hint year 9 notes
will be helpful)
Evaluation of the effect of exercise on
heart rate
1. What were the limitations
(problems ) with the method.
2. For each limitation you have listed
can you think how that problem
could be solved and the method
improved.
3. What experiment would you now
like to do in order to extend your
knowledge of the effect of exercise
on heart rate.
 EXERCISE
• What happens to your heart rate during exercise?
• Why does your heart rate respond in this way?
 Why does our heart beat
faster during exercise?
 When we exercise, our muscles need to do
more work ie contract more.
 The muscles need to increase the rate of
respiration to provide more energy in order
to do more work.
 An increased rate of aerobic respiration
needs an increased supply of oxygen and
glucose.
 Blood needs to be pumped at a faster rate.
 This requires both the number of beats per
minute (heart rate) and the volume of blood
pumped with each beat (stroke volume) to
increase.
 This also results in carbon dioxide and
lactic acid being removed from the muscles
 Heartbeat
• Blood pressure
– Measurement of systolic pressure divided by diastolic
pressure
– Highest when ventricles contract (systolic pressure)
– Lowest when heart relaxes and blood flows into atria
(diastolic pressure)
– Healthy young person = 120/80
• Pulse
– Arterial walls expanding and relaxing as blood is pushed
through them.
– Felt if artery is pushed against a bone
• Resting pulse
– 90 to 120 bpm (children)
– 72 bpm (adult)
• See a beating heart
 How healthy is your
heart?

Measuring your heart rate can be used to

monitor fitness. The fitter you are, the
sooner your pulse rate returns to normal
after exercise.
Revision Quiz
Revision
Quiz
 Revision Quiz

3 ii) Name the following BLOOD VESSELS:

1. Which pumps blood to the lungs
2. With the thickest muscular walls
3. Vessel at the highest pressure
4. Largest blood vessel in body
5. Vessel carrying least oxygen to the heart
 Revision Quiz

b) What process are the ‘C’ cells involved in? (1)

c) Suggest problems associated with too few platelets (2)
d) What is the function of Cell A?
e) What are the advantages of producing memory cells?
(2)
 Revision Quiz
5. a) List 4 factors which can affect your heart rate
b) Why might your heart rate increase if you are:
i) Frightened? (2)
ii) Exercise (4)
 Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson you
should:
1. Understand how the
structure of the blood
vessels are linked to their
functions.
2. Know how the cardiac cycle
works
3. Continue to develop your
microscopy skills by observing
arteries and veins.
The Cardiac
Cycle
The heart pumps
when its muscle
contracts.
The two sides of the
heart work together.
The atria and
ventricles contract
and relax at the
same time.
 The Cardiac Cycle
The sequence of events in
one heartbeat.
• The cardiac cycle is
broken down into 3
stages:
1. The filling phase as the
cardiac muscle relaxes
(Diastole)
2. Atrial Contraction
(Systole)
3. Ventricular Contraction
(Systole)
 Diastole (~0.4 seconds)

1. Atria and ventricles walls relax.

2. Pressure within them decreases.
3. Pressure of the ventricles fall
below pressure of the arteries.
4. Semi lunar valves close
preventing the backflow of
blood.
 Atrial Systole (~0.1 seconds)

1. Volume of the atria decrease.

2. Pressure inside the atria
increases.
3. When the pressure in the atria
is greater than the pressure in
the ventricles, the AV valves
open.
4. Blood flows into the ventricles.
 Ventricular Systole (~0.3
seconds)
1. Volume of ventricles decreases.
2. Pressure inside the ventricles
increase.
3. Pressure in ventricles becomes
greater than pressure of atria.
4. AV valves close and are prevented
from turning inside out by the heart
strings.
5. Prevents backflow of blood.
6. Semi-lunar valves open.
7. Blood flows into arteries.
(The LUB heart sound is the blood hitting
the AV valves).
 Exercise
• When we exercise our muscles produce
more carbon dioxide in aerobic
respiration.
• Sensors in the aorta and carotid artery
detect the increase.
• They send nerve impulses along the
accelerator nerve to increase the heart
rate.
• When carbon dioxide levels return to
normal, the medulla receives fewer
impulses.
• It responds by sending nerve impulses
along the decelerator nerve so the heart
rate drops.