GENERAL PRINCIPLES

NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS

FIRE TRIANGLE

The fire triangle represents the three elements which must be present before combustion
can take place- Each point of the triangle represents one of the essential elements which
are:
1. Fuel: This can be in the form of a gas, vapor, mist or dust
2. Oxygen: Plentiful supply since there is approximately 21% by volume in air.
3. Source of Ignition: This can be an arc, spark, naked flame or hot surface.

1
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
EXPLOSION PENTAGON

Did you ever hear ?

2
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FIRE TRIANGLE
Combustion will take place if all three elements, in one form or another, are present, the gas/air mixture is
within certain limits and the source of ignition has sufficient energy.

The removal of one element is sufficient to prevent combustion, as is the isolation or separation of the source
of ignition from the gas/air mixture- These are two techniques used in explosion protected equipment.

Other protection techniques allow the three elements to co-exist and either ensures that the energy of the
source of ignition is maintained below specific values or allows an explosion to take place and contains it
within a robust enclosure.

3
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FLAMMABLE (EXPLOSIVE) LIMITS

Combustion will only occur if the flammable mixture comprising fuel,

in the form of a gas or vapour, and air are within certain limits. These
limits are the ‘lower explosive limit’ (LEL), and the ‘upper explosive
limit’ (UEL), and between these limits is known as the flammable
range.
An everyday example of this is the carburetor of a petrol engine,
which must be tuned to a particular point between these limits in order
that the engine may function efficiently.

4
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FLAMMABLE (EXPLOSIVE) LIMITS
Lower Explosive When the percentage of gas, by volume, is below this limit the mixture is too weak to
Limit: burn, i.e. insufficient and/or too much air.

When the percentage of gas, by volume, is above this limit the mixture is too rich to
Upper Explosive burn, i.e. insufficient air and/or too much fuel.
Limit:

5
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FLAMMABLE (EXPLOSIVE) LIMITS
The flammable limits of some materials are given below.

6
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FLAMMABLE (EXPLOSIVE) LIMITS
Different gases or vapors have different flammable limits and the greater the difference between the LEL and
the UEL, known as the flammable range, the more dangerous the material. An explosive (flammable)
atmosphere, therefore, only exists between these limits.
Operational safety with flammable mixtures above the UEL is possible but is not a practical proposition. It is
more practical to operate below the LEL.

7
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
SOURCES OF IGNITION
Sources of ignition are many and varied and include:

a. Electrical arc/sparks h. Exhausts of combustion engines

b. Frictional sparks i. Thermite action
c. Hot surfaces j. Sodium exposed to water
d. Welding activities k. Pyrophoric reaction
e. Cigarettes l. Chemical reactions
f. Static discharges m. Lightning strikes
g. Batteries

8
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FLASHPOINT
By definition flashpoint is: ‘the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off a liquid, to form a
flammable mixture with air that can be ignited by an arc, spark or naked flame’. Typical values are given below.
The flashpoint of a material gives an indication of how readily that
material will ignite in normal ambient temperatures. Reference to the
tables of flammable materials from PD IEC60079-20 (see Appendix 1)
reveals that different materials have different flashpoints, which vary
from well below to well above 0°C.
Materials with high flashpoints should not be overlooked as a potential
hazard since exposure to hot surfaces can allow a flammable mixture
to form locally. Furthermore, if a flammable material is discharged
under pressure from a jet, its flashpoint may be reduced.

9
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FLASHPOINT
By definition flashpoint is: ‘the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off a liquid, to form a
flammable mixture with air that can be ignited by an arc, spark or naked flame’. Typical values are given below.

The flashpoint of a material gives an indication of how readily that material will ignite in normal
ambient temperatures. Reference to the tables of flammable materials from PD IEC60079-20 (see
Appendix 1) reveals that different materials have different flashpoints, which vary from well below
to well above 0°C.
Materials with high flashpoints should not be overlooked as a potential hazard since exposure to
hot surfaces can allow a flammable mixture to form locally. Furthermore, if a flammable material is
discharged under pressure from a jet, its flashpoint may be reduced.

10
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
FLASHPOINT

11
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
IGNITION TEMPERATURE
Ignition temperature is defined as: ‘the minimum temperature at
which a flammable material will spontaneously ignite’.
Ignition temperature, formerly known as auto-ignition temperature,
is an important parameter since many industrial processes generate
heat.
Careful selection of electrical equipment will ensure that the surface
temperature produced by the equipment, indicated by the T-rating,
will not exceed the ignition temperature of the flammable
atmosphere which may be present around the equipment. Typical
values of ignition temperature are

12
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
OXYGEN ENRICHMENT
The normal oxygen content in the atmosphere is around 20.95%, and if a given location has a value which
exceeds this it is deemed to be oxygen enriched. Typical examples of where oxygen enrichment may occur are
gas manufacturing plants, hospital operating theatres, and where oxy-acetylene equipment is used.
Oxygen enrichment has three distinct disadvantages.
First of all, it can lower the ignition temperature of flammable materials as shown in the table below.

13
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
OXYGEN ENRICHMENT
Secondly, oxygen enrichment significantly raises the upper explosive limit (UEL) of the majority of gases and
vapours, thereby widening their flammable range. This is illustrated in
the following table.

14
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS-OXYGEN
ENRICHMENT
Secondly, oxygen enrichment significantly raises the upper explosive limit (UEL) of the majority of gases and
vapours, thereby widening their flammable range. This is illustrated in the following table.
Thirdly, oxygen enrichment of a flammable atmosphere can allow it to be ignited with much lower values of
electrical energy.

15
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
DENSITY
If a flammable material is released, it is important to know whether the material will rise or fall in the
atmosphere. The different flammable materials are compared with air and allocated a number to denote their
relative density with air. Since air is the reference, its relative density is 1 so that for a material twice as heavy
as air, its relative density will be 2. Therefore, materials with a relative density less than unity will rise in the
atmosphere,
and those greater than unity will fall in the atmosphere.
Materials which rise in the atmosphere can collect in roof spaces, and those which fall, such as butane or
propane, can drift along at ground level and possibly into a non-hazardous location, or may collect in locations
lower than ground level without ever dispersing. Such locations should be well ventilated in order to avoid
ignition due to a stray spark or a discarded cigarette.
Knowledge of where a flammable material will collect ensures that gas detectors detectors when fitted will be
located at the correct level and ventilation is directed accordingly.

16
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
NATURE OF FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
DENSITY

17
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION
HAZARDOUS AREA
A hazardous area is defined as:
‘An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present, or may be expected to be present, in quantities such
as to require special precautions for the construction, installation and use of apparatus.’

an explosive atmosphere is defined as a mixture of dangerous substances with air, under atmospheric
conditions, in the form of gases, vapours, mist or dust in which, after ignition has occurred, combustion spreads
to the entire unburned mixture.

18
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION
ZONES
Zoning is a means of representing the frequency of the occurrence and duration of an explosive gas atmosphere based on the
identification and consideration of each and every source of release in the given areas of an installation. Zoning will have a bearing
on, and simplify the selection of, the type of explosion protected equipment which may be used.
Hazardous areas are, therefore, divided into three Zones which represent this risk in terms of the probability, frequency and duration
of a release.
The three Zones, as defined in IEC60079-10-1: Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres, Part 10. Classification of
hazardous areas, are as follows:
Zone 0 An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present continuously or for long periods or
Zone 1 frequently.
Zone 2 An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation occasionally.
An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation but, if it
does occur, will persist for a short period only.

19
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION - ZONES
Zone representation for ‘Area Classification Diagrams’
In accordance with IEC60079-10, the illustrations below are the preferred method for representing the various
zones in a hazardous area.

20
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION - ZONE

Fixed Roof Storage Tank

Distances:
‘a’ 3m from vent opening
‘b’ 3m above the roof
‘c’ 3m horizontally from the side of the tank

21
Drawing

22
23
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION - SOURCES OF RELEASE

24
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION – GAS & DUST GROUP

In the IEC system, the group allocation for surface and underground (mining) industries are separate. Group I is
reserved for the mining industry, and Group II which is subdivided into IIC, IIB and IIA for surface industries.
The representative gases for the sub-groups are shown in the table below.

25
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION - TEMPERATURE
CLASSIFICATION
Approved electrical equipment must be selected with due regard to the ignition temperature of the flammable
gas or vapour which may be present in the hazardous location. Apparatus will usually be marked with one of the
temperature classes shown in the table below.
The temperature class indicates the maximum temperature the surfaces of an enclosure, which are exposed to a
flammable gas, must not exceed during normal or specified fault conditions.

26
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AREA CLASSIFICATION - INGRESS PROTECTION
Enclosures of electrical equipment are classified according to their ability to resist the ingress of solid objects
and water by means of a system of numbers known as the ‘International Protection (IP) Code’. This code, which
is not always marked on apparatus, consists of the letters IP followed by two numbers, e.g. IP56.

27
STANDARDS, CERTIFICATION AND MARKING
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION LEVEL
As we have seen time after time, hazardous areas for the presence of potentially explosive substances are
divided into zones.
As reference to gases, vapors or mists, the relevant areas are classified in Zone 0, 1 or 2. The reference standard
is the IEC / EN 60079-10-1.
As reference to dust, the relevant areas are classified in Zone 20, 21 or 22. The reference standard is the IEC /
EN 60079-10-2.
As we know, an explosion occurs when an ignition source is in contact with the explosive atmosphere.
This situation must be absolutely avoided.
In the most dangerous areas, in which the risk of explosion is caused by the presence of explosive gas or dust
for long periods of time during the year, the equipment installed must have very high levels of protection. In the
less dangerous areas, as the Zone 2 for gas and the Zone 22 for dust, you can use equipment with lower levels of
protection.

28
STANDARDS, CERTIFICATION AND MARKING
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION LEVEL
In the following table, you can see the comparison between EPL and ATEX Category:

29
STANDARDS, CERTIFICATION AND MARKING
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION LEVEL - GASES
EPL Ga:
Equipment for explosive atmospheres due to the presence of gas, with a level of protection 'very high', which is
not a source of ignition in normal operation, or in case of expected failure or when subjected to a rare failure.

EPL Gb:
Equipment for use in explosive atmospheres due to the presence of gas, with a 'high’ level of protection that is
not the source of ignition in normal operation or when subject to expected malfunctions, although not on a
regular basis.

EPL Gc:
Equipment for use in explosive atmospheres due to the presence of gas, with a level of protection „increased‟
that is not a source of ignition in normal operation. It has some additional security measures in order to ensure
that it remains a source of ignition not active in case of expected events on a regular basis (for example, the
failure of a lamp).:

30
STANDARDS, CERTIFICATION AND MARKING
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION LEVEL - DUST
EPL Da:
Equipment for explosive atmospheres due to the presence of combustible dust, which has a level of protection
'very high', and does not constitute a source of ignition in normal operation or when subject to rare failures.

EPL Db:
Equipment for explosive atmospheres due to the presence of combustible dust, which has a level of protection
'high'. It does not constitute a source of ignition in normal operation or when subject to expected failures,
although not on a regular basis.

EPL Dc:
Equipment for explosive atmospheres due to the presence of dust, with a level of protection 'increased', which is
not a source of ignition in normal operation. It may have additional protections in order to ensure that it remains
inactive as a source of ignition in the case of regular and waited failure.

31
STANDARDS, CERTIFICATION AND MARKING
EQUIPMENT PROTECTION LEVEL - DUST
Below is an example of marking including ATEX requirements, those of European and International standards
and the EPL:

1) Atex Category: suitable for Zone 1

2) Way of protection “Ex e” according to IEC/EN 60079-7 standard
3) Protection level Gb: suitable for Zone 1

32
EX PROTECTION CONCEPTS
THE MITIGATION OF THE EXPLOSION RISK: BASIC
CRITERIA
For the design of electrical devices having an EPL Ga, Gb or Gc it will be necessary to avoid that the three
factors that make up the combustion triangle are present at the same time.
To do this we will follow three basic criteria:

1. Containment 2. Prevention 3.Segregation

The explosion can occur but is The ignition of the explosive The ignition sources are physically
confined to a well-defined volume by atmosphere is avoided by controlling separated from the explosive
means of special enclosures. It is also the energies involved, as in the atmosphere. Segregation is the basis
precluded the possibility that the intrinsically safe protection mode, or of the protection mode by means of
explosion could ignite the surrounding Ex-p pressurization, Ex-m
by increasing standard industrial safety
atmosphere. The containment of the encapsulation, Ex-o oil immersion,
criteria, as in the increased safety
explosion is the basis of the explosion
protection mode. This criterion is the Ex-q powder filling, Ex- nR limited
protection method Ex-d whose
basis of the increased safety Ex-e and breathing.
enclosures are often defined
flameproof. intrinsically safe Ex-i protection mode

33
34
EX PROTECTION CONCEPTS
EX-D
Ex d Enclosure

35
EX PROTECTION CONCEPTS
EX-E
Ex e Junction Box

36
EX PROTECTION CONCEPTS
EX-P
Ex P Junction Box

37