Fundamentals Of Firefighting

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Fundamentals Of Firefighting
Fire is a constant potential hazard aboard ship. You must take all possible measures to prevent fires from starting. Good housekeeping on a vessel prevents fires by eliminating potential fuel sources. If a fire does start, you must immediately report the fire or sound the fire alarm, and then extinguish it rapidly. Fire start in conjunction with engine and boiler failure, storms, or accident. A fire can cause more damage than the initial casualty if not immediately extinguished. As an engineer you need to know how to identify different classes of fires, how to extinguish them, and how to use and maintain fire fighting systems and equipment. This chapter covers the fundamentals of firefighting. Including the components of fire, classification of fires, the effects of fire, the fundamentals of extinguishing fires, and the extinguishing agents used. FIRE COMPONENTS Three components are required for a fire. They are a combustible material, a sufficiently high temperature, and a supply of oxygen. Known as the FIRE TRIANGLE, these three components are simply referred to as: Heat Fuel Oxygen Fires are generally controlled and extinguished by eliminating one side of the fire triangle. If you remove either the fuel, heat, or oxygen, you can prevent or extinguish a fire. HEAT Fire, also called burning or combustion, is a rapid chemical reaction that results in the release of energy in the form of light and heat. Most combustion involves very rapid oxidation. Even when oxidation proceeds very slowly, like iron rusting, a small amount of heat is generated. This heat usually dissipates before there is any noticeable rise in temperature. Spontaneous combustion Ignition of a substance (as oily rags) resulting from an internal oxidation process can occur with certain materials if heat from oxidation is not dissipated. Such things as rags or papers soaked in oil, solvents, or paint are subject to spontaneous combustion if stowed in confined spaces where the heat of oxidation cannot dissipate rapidly enough. In order to have a combustible fuel or substance take fire, it must have an ignition source and it must be hot enough to burn. The lowest temperature at which a flammable substance gives off vapors that will burn when a flame or spark is applied is called the FLASH POINT The lowest temperature at which the vapor above a liquid can be ignited in air.. FUEL Fuels take on a wide variety of characteristics. A fuel may be a solid, liquid, or even a vapor. Some of the fuels you will come into contact with are rags, paper, wood, oil, paint, solvents, and magnesium metals. This is by no means a complete list, but only examples. OXYGEN The oxygen side of the fire triangle refers to the oxygen content of the surrounding air. Ordinarily, a minimum concentration of 15 percent oxygen in the air is needed to support flaming combustion. However, smoldering combustion can take place in an atmosphere with as little as 3 percent oxygen. Air normally contains about 21 percent oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen, and 1 percent other gases, principally argon. FLAMMABLE & COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS

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Some of the USCG exam questions pertaining to flammable and combustible liquids contradict each other. I was ready to file a protest to the National Maritime Center, but after extensive research I realized the contradiction is in the Code Of Federal Regulations. The Title 46 Shipping CFR's and the Title 29 Labor CFR's both cover flammable and combustible liquids, but the definitions are different. The best way to remember the difference is, all the questions that mention a Material Safety Data Sheet are based on 100 F, if the flashpoint is below this point its a flammable liquid, if the flashpoint is above 100 F then its a combustible liquid. All other questions are taken from the shipping CFR's, and use 80 F as the separation point. Search Code of Federal Regulations TITLE 46--SHIPPING 46CFR105.10 This description of combustible and flammable liquids is found in section 105, titled Commercial fishing vessels dispensing petroleum products, and is regulated by Coast Guard, Department of Transportation. Sec. 105.10-10 Combustible liquid. (a) The term combustible liquid means any liquid having a flashpoint above 80 F. (as determined from an open cup tester, as used for test of burning oils). In the regulations of this part, combustible liquids are referred to by grades, as follows: (1) Grade D. Any combustible liquid having a flashpoint below 150 F. and above 80 F. (2) Grade E. Any combustible liquid having a flashpoint of 150 F. or above. Sec. 105.10-15 Flammable liquid. (a) The term flammable liquid means any liquid which gives off flammable vapors (as determined by flashpoint from an open cup tester, as used for test of burning oils) at or below a temperature of 80 F. Flammable liquids are referred to by grades as follows: (1) Grade A. Any flammable liquid having a Reid vapor pressure of 14 pounds or more. * (2) Grade B. Any flammable liquid having a Reid vapor pressure under 14 pounds and over 8 pounds. * (3) Grade C. Any flammable liquid having a Reid vapor pressure of 8 pounds or less and a flashpoint of 80 F. or below. * * American Society of Testing Materials Standard D 323 (incorporated by reference, see Sec. 105.01-3) (most recent revision), Method of Test for Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid Method). TITLE 29--LABOR CFR1910.106 (7102 Edition) This description of combustible and flammable liquids is found in section 105, titled Commercial fishing vessels dispensing petroleum products, and is regulated by Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Department of Labor. Subpart H - Hazardous Materials Sec. 1910.106 Flammable and combustible liquids. (18) Combustible liquid means any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 100F. (37.8 C.) (19) Flammable liquid means any liquid having a flashpoint below 100 F. (37.8 C.), except any mixture having components with flashpoints of 100 F. (37.8 C.) or higher, the total of which make up 99 percent or more of the total volume of the mixture. Summary Liquids having a flash point below 100F is listed on a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), as a flammable liquid. Liquids having a flash point at or above 100F is listed on a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) as a combustible liquid.

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Fundamentals Of Firefighting

Liquids having a flash point above 80F, but below 150F, are termed grade C flammable liquids. Light fuel oils have a flash point below 150F

Flash Points
Gasoline Bunker C (No. 6 Fuel Oil) Naphtha Butane blend (Gas) EXPLOSIVE LIMIT Fire or explosions may occur in confined spaces which have an atmosphere within the explosive limits of the gas (or liquid vapour). Explosive limits (also known as flammable or explosive range ), expressed in percentage (%), may be defined as the minimum and maximum concentrations of a flammable gas or vapour between which ignition can occur. Concentrations below the lower explosive limit are too lean to burn while those above the upper explosive limit are too rich to burn. If a substance has an explosive range of 1 to 12 percent, this means that fire or explosion can occur if the atmosphere contains more then 1 percent (lower explosive limit) but less then 12 percent (upper explosive limit) of the substance vapor by volume. FIRE CLASSIFICATIONS Fires are classified according to the nature of the combustibles (or fuels) involved, as shown in table below. The classification of any particular fire is of great importance since it determines the manner in which the fire must be extinguished. Fires are classified as being either class ALPHA, BRAVO, CHARLIE, or DELTA. Class ALPHA (A) fires are those that occur in such ordinary combustible materials as wood, cloth, paper, upholstery, and similar materials. Class A fires are usually extinguished with water, using high or low velocity fog or solid streams. Class A fires leave embers or ashes and must always be overhauled. Class BRAVO (B) fires are those that occur in the vapor air mixture over the surface of flammable liquids, such as gasoline, jet fuels, diesel oil, fuel oil, paints, thinners, solvents, lubricating oils, and greases. Aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF), *Halon 1211, *Halon 1301, or dry chemical Purple-K-Powder (PKP) can be used to extinguish class B fires. The agent used will depend upon the circumstances of the fire. Class CHARLIE (C) fires are those which occur in electrical equipment. Nonconducting extinguishing agents, such as Dry chemical, Carbon dioxide, and *Halon 1211, are used to extinguish class C fires. CO and Halon 1211 are preferred because they leave no residue. Class C fires present the danger of electrocution or shock, and toxic fumes from burning insulation. Never use water or any extinguishing agent that conducts electricity. When using CO do not make contact with the circuit as the frost on the horn can conduct electricity. Class DELTA (D) fires occur in combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, and sodium. Special techniques have been developed to control this type of fire. If possible, you should jettison the burning material overboard. Most class D fires are fought by applying large amounts of water on the burning material to cool it down below its ignition temperature. However, a magnesium fire can be smothered by covering it with a large volume of dry sand. FIRE CLASSIFICATION ALPHA BRAVO EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF MATERIAL Wood, paper, cloth, upholstery Flammable liquids, such as fuel oil, gasoline, paint, oil, grease, solvents Electrical equipment and wiring TYPE OF EXTINGUISHER -45 F 150 F 35 F 0 F

water AFFF, Halon 1301, Dry Chemical, CO, water fog CO and *Halon 1211 are preferred; Dry Chemical can be used but causes corrosion

CHARLIE

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Fundamentals Of Firefighting

DELTA

Combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, and sodium

Jettison from ship, large volumes of water and sand

* On January 1, 1996 the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY stopped the production and use of all class 1 ozone depleting substances. Halon is a class 1 CFC Chlorofluorocarbons, refrigerants R-11, -12, -113, -114, -115, -502, and Halon. CFC's have not been produced since 1995 due to the very harmful ozone depletion effect. and is no longer available, however some ships could still have Halon extinguishers aboard. The USCG questions still refer to Halon.

THE EFFECTS OF FIRE A burning substance produces a number of chemical reactions. These reactions produce flames, heat, smoke, and number of gases and other combustion products. The gases and combustion products will reduce the amount of oxygen available for breathing. All of these effects are vitally important to you as a fire fighter. You must be prepared to protect yourself against them. FLAME, HEAT, AND SMOKE Personnel must be protected from the flames, heat, and smoke to avoid injuries or loss of life. Before you enter a compartment or area where there is a fire, you need to be dressed out properly. You must tuck your pants into your socks, button the collar on your shirt. Wear any other protective clothing prescribed by current directives. If you are on the nozzle or hose, you will also need to wear protective gloves and a self-contained breathing apparatus. The flames and heat from a fire can be intense. However, if you are dressed out properly and maintain adequate distance, you can minimize your chances of getting burned. The smoke will make it hard to see and breathe. However, you can cope with these problems by wearing an self-contained breathing apparatus. COMBUSTION GASES Some of the gases produced by a fire are toxic (poisonous). Other gases, although nontoxic, are dangerous in other ways. We will discuss briefly some of the more common gases that are associated with fires. Carbon Monoxide - A fire produces carbon monoxide (CO) when there is not enough oxygen present for the complete combustion of all of the carbon in the burning material. CO is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonirritating gas. However, it can cause death even in small concentrations. A person who is exposed to a concentration of 1.28 percent CO in air will become unconscious after two or three breaths. They will probably die in 1 to 3 minutes if left in the area. CO also has a wide explosive range. If CO is mixed with air in the amount of 12.5 to 74 percent by volume, an open flame or even a spark will set off a violent explosion. Carbon Dioxide - Carbon dioxide (CO) is produced by a fire when there is complete combustion of all of the carbon in the burning material. CO is a colorless and odorless gas. Although CO is not poisonous, unconsciousness can result from prolonged exposure at 10 percent volume and higher. Above 11 percent volume, unconsciousness can occur in 1 minute or less. In a sufficient quantity, death can result from suffocation, CO does not provide any oxygen to breathe. The danger of asphyxiation should not be taken lightly. CO does not give any warning of its presence, even when present in dangerous amounts. It does not support combustion and it does not form explosive mixtures with any substances. Because of these characteristics, CO is very useful as a fire-extinguishing agent. It is also used to inert fuel oil tanks, gasoline tanks, and similar spaces. Hydrogen Sulfide - (HS) is generated in some fires. It is also produced by the rotting of foods, cloth, leather, sewage, and other organic materials. HS can be produced within 6 to 12 hours. Use caution when fighting fires around sewage systems and in spaces where there has been a sewage spill. HS is a colorless gas that smells like rotten eggs. Air that contains 4.3 to 46 percent HS is violently explosive in the presence of a flame. HS is extremely poisonous if breathed, even in concentrations as low as 20 parts per million (ppm). You may rapidly become unconscious, stop breathing, and possibly die after one breath in an atmosphere that contains 1,000 to 2,000 ppm (.07 to .10 percent). INSUFFICIENT OXYGEN - A fire in a closed compartment may cause an inadequate supply of oxygen for breathing. An enormous amount of oxygen is used by the fire itself, leaving relatively little oxygen to breathe. The amount of oxygen normally present in the air is 20.8 percent. You breathe and work best with this amount of oxygen. When a space is suspected of having an insufficient amount of oxygen, wear an selfcontained breathing apparatus. Keep the self-contained breathing apparatus on until atmospheric tests show that oxygen content is at least 20 percent and no more than 22 percent by volume. When there is only 15 percent oxygen, a person is likely to become dizzy, with a buzzing in his ears, a rapid heartbeat, and a headache. When the oxygen content falls to 9%, unconsciousness may occur. Death is likely to result when the oxygen content is 7% or less.

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Fundamentals Of Firefighting

FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT In general, fires may be extinguished by removing one side of the fire triangle (fuel, heat, or oxygen) or by slowing down the rate of combustion. The method or methods used in any specific instance will depend upon the classification of the fire and the circumstances surrounding the fire. REMOVING FUEL - Although it is not usually possible to remove the fuel to extinguish a fire, there may be circumstances in which it is possible. If part of the fuel that is near or actually on fire can safely be removed, do so as soon as possible. Firefighters must be ready at all times to shift combustibles to safe areas. Take whatever measures possible to keep additional fuel away from the fire. In particular, immediately close supply valves in fuel oil, lube oil lines. REMOVING HEAT - The fire will go out if you can remove enough heat by cooling the fuel to below temperature at which it will support combustion. Heat may be transferred in three ways as follows: 1. By radiation, heat is radiated through the air in all directions. Radiated heat is what causes you to feel hot when you stand near an open fire. 2. By conduction, heat is transferred through a substance or from one substance to another by direct contact from molecule to molecule. Therefore, a thick steel bulkhead with a fire on one side can conduct heat from the fire and transfer the heat to the adjoining compartments. 3. By convection, the air and gases rising from a fire are heated. These gases can then transfer the heat to other combustible materials that are within reach. Heat transferred by convection is a particular danger in ventilation systems. These systems may carry the heated gases from the fire to another location several compartments away. If there are combustibles with a low flash point within a compartment served by the same ventilation system, a new fire may start. To eliminate the heat side of the fire triangle, cool the fire by applying something that will absorb the heat. Although several agents serve this purpose, water is the most commonly used cooling agent. Water may be applied in the form of a solid stream, as a fog, or used together foam. CONTROLLING OXYGEN - Oxygen is difficult to control because you obviously cannot remove the oxygen from the atmosphere that normally surrounds a fire. However, oxygen can be diluted or displaced by other substances that are noncombustible. For example, if a fire occurs in a closed space, it can be extinguished by diluting the air with carbon dioxide (C0 ) gas. This dilution must proceed to a certain point before the flames are extinguished. The point at which the dilution is enough to extinguish the fire can be reached faster if you quickly secure all ventilation systems to the space. In general, a large enough volume of C0 2 must be used to reduce the oxygen content to 15 percent or less. EXTINGUISHING AGENTS The extinguishing agents commonly used aboard ship include the following: Water Foam Dry Chemical Carbon Dioxide (CO) *HALON The agent or agents that are used in any particular case will depend upon the classification of the fire and the general circumstances. WATER is a cooling agent, aboard ship the sea provides an inexhaustible supply. If the surface temperature of a fire can be lowered below the ignition temperature of the fuel, the fire will be extinguished. Water is most efficient when it absorbs enough heat to raise its temperature to 212F (100C). At this temperature, the seawater will absorb still more heat until it changes to steam. The steam carries away the heat and results in the lowering of the temperature of the surface. AQUEOUS FILM-FORMING FOAM (AFFF) - Foam is a highly effective extinguishing agent for smothering large fires, particularly those in oil, gasoline, and jet fuels. AFFF, also known as light water, is a synthetic, film forming foam designed for use in shipboard fire-fighting systems. The foam proportioning/injection equipment generates a white

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Fundamentals Of Firefighting

foam blanket. AFFF is equivalent to seawater when it is used to extinguish class A fires. The unique action of AFFF stems from its ability to make a light water film float on flammable fuels. As foam is applied over the flammable liquid surface, an aqueous solution drains from the foam bubbles and floats out over the surface to provide a vapor seal. This aqueous film-forming action enhances extinguishment and prevents reflash, even when the foam blanket is disturbed. Fuels which have not been ignited may also be protected with this same action. AFFF can be used alone or in combination with dry-chemical. DRY CHEMICAL powders extinguish a fire by a rather complicated chemical mechanism. They do not smother the fire and they do not cool it. Instead, they interrupt the chemical reaction of the fire by suspending fine particles in the fire. In effect, the dry chemicals put a temporary screen between the heat, oxygen, and fuel and maintain this screen just long enough for the fire to be extinguished. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO) is an effective agent for extinguishing fires by smothering them. CO reduces the amount of oxygen available for combustion. This smothering action is temporary, the fire can quickly rekindle if oxygen is again admitted to the hot embers. CO is a dry, noncorrosive gas that is inert when in contact with most substances. It is heavier than air and remains close to the surface. CO does not damage machinery or other equipment. Since it is a nonconductor of electricity, CO can safely be used to fight fires that might present electric shock hazards. However, the frost that collects on the horn of a CO extinguisher does conduct electricity. Therefore, you should be careful and never allow the horn to come into contact with electrical components. Aboard ship, CO fire extinguishing equipment includes 15-pound CO extinguishers, 50-pound CO hose and reel installations, and 50-poundCO installed flooding systems. Although CO is nonpoisonous, it is dangerous because it does not provide a suitable atmosphere for breathing. Asphyxiation can result from breathing CO ; therefore, self-contained breathing apparatus must be worn when CO is used below decks or in confined spaces. *HALON is a colorless, odorless gas with a density approximately five times that of air. It does not conduct electricity or leave a residue. Halon is stored in compressed gas cylinders for shipboard use. This extinguishing agent is effective against class A, class B, and class C fires. The fires are not extinguished by smothering or cooling; instead, the chemical reaction of the fire is interrupted similar to the result of using dry chemicals. Halon decomposes upon contact with flames that are approximately 900F (482C). For Halon to function effectively as an extinguishing agent, it must decompose. However, as it decomposes, several other products, such as hydrogen fluoride (HF) and hydrogen bromide (HBr), are formed. Both gases are irritating to the eyes, skin, and upper respiratory tract. Chemical burns are also possible. You should not stay in a space where Halon has been released unless you are wearing an self-contained breathing apparatus.
* On January 1, 1996 the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY stopped the production and use of all class 1 ozone depleting substances. Halon is a class 1 CFC Chlorofluorocarbons, refrigerants R-11, -12, -113, -114, -115, -502, and Halon. CFC's have not been produced since 1995 due to the very harmful ozone depletion effect. and is no longer available, however some ships could still have Halon extinguishers aboard. The USCG questions still refer to Halon.

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