DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING Lecture Series 3-Spring 2023

CS457 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
Lecture Series 3
Fundamentals of Image
Processing
https://m-wasim.wixsite.com/m-wasim DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 1
ORIGINS OF DIGITAL IMAGE
PROCESSING
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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 2

PROCESSING

SOURCES FOR IMAGES
 Electromagnetic (EM) energy spectrum
 Acoustic
 Ultrasonic
 Electronic
 Synthetic images produced by computer

PROCESSING

ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM)
ENERGY SPECTRUM
Gamma-ray imaging: nuclear medicine and astronomical observations

X-rays: medical diagnostics, industry, and astronomy, etc.
Ultraviolet: lithography, industrial inspection, microscopy, lasers, biological imaging, and astronomical
observations
Visible and infrared bands: light microscopy, astronomy, remote sensing, industry, and law enforcement
Microwave band: radar
Radio band: medicine (such as MRI) and astronomy

GAMA-RAYS IMAGING

X-RAY IMAGING

ULTRAVIOLET IMAGING

LIGHT MICROSCOPY IMAGING

VISUAL AND INFRARED
IMAGING

INFRARED SATTELITE
IMAGING

AUTOMATED VISUAL
INSPECTION

AUTOMATED VISUAL
INSPECTION
Results of
automated
reading of the
plate content by
the system
The area in which

the imaging system
detected the plate

EXAMPLE OF RADAR IMAGES

EXAMPLE OF MRI (RADIO
BAND)

ULTRA SOUND IMAGES

IMAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS

SIMPLE IMAGE FORMATION
MODEL
f ( x, y )  i ( x, y )r ( x, y )
f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y)

i ( x, y ) : illumination at the point (x, y )
(the amount of source illumination incident on the scene)
r ( x, y ) : reflectance/transmissivity at the point (x, y )
(the amount of illumination reflected/transmitted by the object)
where 0 < i ( x, y ) <  and 0 < r ( x, y) < 1

IMAGE SAMPLING &
QUANTIZATION

REPRESENTATION OF DIGITAL
IMAGES
The representation of an M×N numerical array as
 f (0, 0) f (0,1) ... f (0, N  1) 

 f (1, 0) f (1,1) ... f (1, N  1) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M  1, 0) f ( M  1,1) ... f ( M  1, N  1) 

IMAGES
The representation of an M×N numerical array as
 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N 1 

 a a1,1 ... a1, N 1  
A  1,0
 ... ... ... ... 

 
 aM 1,0 aM 1,1 ... aM 1, N 1 

IMAGES
The representation of an M×N numerical array in
MATLAB
 f (1,1) f (1, 2) ... f (1, N ) 

 f (2,1) f (2, 2) ... f (2, N ) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M ,1) f ( M , 2) ... f (M , N )

IMAGES
Discrete intensity interval [0, L-1], L=2k
The number b of bits required to store a M × N digitized

image
b=M×N×k

IMAGES

SPATIAL AND INTENSITY
RESOLUTION
• Spatial resolution
— A measure of the smallest discernible detail in an image
— stated with line pairs per unit distance, dots (pixels) per unit
distance, dots per inch (dpi)
• Intensity resolution
— The smallest discernible change in intensity level
— stated with 8 bits, 12 bits, 16 bits, etc.

IMAGES INTERPOLATION
• Interpolation — Process of using known data to estimate unknown values
e.g., zooming, shrinking, rotating, and geometric correction
• Interpolation (sometimes called resampling) — an imaging method to

increase (or decrease) the number of pixels in a digital image.
Some digital cameras use interpolation to produce a larger image than the
sensor captured or to create digital zoom
http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/key=interpolation

NEAREST NEIGHBORHOOD
INTERPOLATION
f1(x2,y2) = f(x1,y1)
f(round(x2), round(y2))
=f(x1,y1)
f1(x3,y3) =
f(round(x3), round(y3))
=f(x1,y1)

BILINEAR INTERPOLATION
(x,y)
f 2 ( x, y )
 (1  a )(1  b) f (l , k )  a (1  b)  f (l  1, k )
 (1  a )b  f (l , k  1)  a b  f (l  1, k  1)
l  floor ( x ), k  floor ( y ), a  x  l , b  y  k .
BI-CUBIC INTERPOLATION

BASIC RELATIONS BETWEEN
PIXELS
• Neighborhood
• Adjacency
• Connectivity
• Paths
• Regions and boundaries

PIXELS
• Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)
• 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):
(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).
• 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):
(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).
• 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)
N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)

PIXELS
• Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values
• 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).
• 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p).

PIXELS
• Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values
• m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

m-adjacent if
(i) q is in the set N4(p), or
(ii) q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ ND(p) has
no pixels whose values are from V.

PIXELS
 Path
• A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel q
with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates
(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)
Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
• Here n is the length of the path.
• If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

• We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of adjacency
used.

EXAMPLE: ADJACENCY AND
PATH
V = {1, 2}
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

PATH
V = {1, 2}

PATH

PATH

PIXELS
Connected in S
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two pixels p with
coordinates (x0, y0) and q with coordinates (xn, yn) are said to be
connected in S if there exists a path
(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)
Where i, 0  i  n, ( xi , yi )  S

PIXELS
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image
• For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p
is called a connected component of S.
• If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected
Set.
• We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set
• Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a
connected set.
• Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.

PIXELS
 Boundary (or border)
• The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that have one or
more neighbors that are not in R.
• If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of
pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.
• Foreground and background
• An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote the union of
all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement.
All the points in Ru is called foreground;
All the points in (Ru)c is called background.

PIXELS
Boundary (or border)
The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that have one
or more neighbors that are not in R.
If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the set of
pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.
Foreground and background
An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote the

union of all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement.
All the points in Ru is called foreground;
All the points in (Ru)c is called background.
PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS
DISTANCE MEASURE
 Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t), (u, v)
respectively, the distance function D has following properties:
 D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]
 D(p, q) = D(q, p)
 D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)

PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS

PIXELS

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CS457 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Sent by submarine cable

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 2

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 3

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 4

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 5

Gamma-ray imaging: nuclear medicine and astronomical observations

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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 7

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 8

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 9

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 10

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 11

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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 13

The area in which

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 14

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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 16

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 17

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 18

f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y)

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 19

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 20

 f (0, 0) f (0,1) ... f (0, N  1) 

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 21

 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N 1 

 ... ... ... ... 

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 22

 f (1,1) f (1, 2) ... f (1, N ) 

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 23

The number b of bits required to store a M × N digitized

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 24

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 25

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 26

• Interpolation (sometimes called resampling) — an imaging method to

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 27

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 28

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 30

• Regions and boundaries

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 31

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 32

• 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

• 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 33

• m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 34

• If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 35

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 36

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 37

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(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING BY DR. M. WASIM 41

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Foreground and background

An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote the