Lectures 1-3 Final

Lectures 1-3
MAN 325
Mathematical Imaging
Techniques
Instructor
► Dr. Sanjeev Kumar
Associate Professor
Department of Mathematics, IIT Roorkee
Can catch at : Room No. 302
mail at: [email protected]
gtalk: MALIKDMA@GMAIL
S. No.
Contents
1. Image fundamentals: A simple image formation model, sampling and quantization,
connectivity and adjacency relationships between pixels
2. Spatial domain filtering: Basic intensity transformations: negative, log, power-law and
piecewise linear transformations, bit-plane slicing, histogram equalization and matching,
smoothing and sharpening filtering in spatial domain, unsharp masking and high-boost
filtering
3. Frequency domain filtering: Fourier Series and Fourier transform, discrete and fast
Fourier transform, sampling theorem, aliasing, filtering in frequency domain, lowpass
and highpass filters, bandreject and bandpass filters, notch filters
4. Image restoration: Introduction to various noise models, restoration in presence of
noise only, periodic noise reduction, linear and position invariant degradation,
estimation of degradation function
5. Image reconstruction: Principles of computed tomography, projections and Radon
transform, the Fourier slice theorem, reconstruction using parallel-beam and fan-beam
by filtered backprojection methods
6. Mathematical morphology: Erosion and dilation, opening and closing, the Hit-or-Miss
transformation, various morphological algorithms for binary images
7. Wavelets and multiresolution processing: Image pyramids, subband coding,
multiresolution expansions, the Haar transform, wavelet transform in one and two
dimensions, discrete wavelet transform
Gonzalez, R. C. and Woods, R. E., "Digital Image
Processing", Prentice Hall, 3rd Ed.
Jain, A. K., "Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing",
PHI Learning, 1st Ed.
Bernd, J., "Digital Image Processing", Springer, 6th Ed.
Burger, W. and Burge, M. J., "Principles of Digital Image
Processing", Springer
Scherzer, O., " Handbook of Mathematical Methods in
Imaging", Springer
Image Acquisition Process
Weeks 1 & 2 8
Introduction
► What is Digital Image Processing?
Digital Image
— a two-dimensional function f ( x, y )
x and y are spatial coordinates
The amplitude of f is called intensity or gray level at the point (x, y)
Digital Image Processing

— process digital images by means of computer, it covers low-, mid-, and high-level
processes
low-level: inputs and outputs are images
mid-level: outputs are attributes extracted from input images
high-level: an ensemble of recognition of individual objects
Pixel
— the elements of a digital image
Weeks 1 & 2 9
A Simple Image Formation Model
f ( x, y )  i ( x, y ) r ( x, y )
f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y )

i ( x, y ) : illumination at the point (x, y )
(the amount of source illumination incident on the scene)
r ( x, y ) : reflectance/transmissivity at the point (x, y )
(the amount of illumination reflected/transmitted by the object)
where 0 < i ( x, y ) <  and 0 < r ( x, y ) < 1
Weeks 1 & 2 10
Some Typical Ranges of Reflectance
► Reflectance
 0.01 for black velvet
 0.65 for stainless steel
 0.80 for flat-white wall paint
 0.90 for silver-plated metal
 0.93 for snow

Weeks 1 & 2 11
Image Sampling and Quantization
Digitizing the
coordinate
values
Digitizing the
amplitude
values
Weeks 1 & 2 12
Image Sampling and Quantization
Weeks 1 & 2 13
Representing Digital Images
► The representation of an M×N numerical

array as
 f (0, 0) f (0,1) ... f (0, N  1) 

 f (1, 0) f (1,1) ... f (1, N  1) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M  1, 0) f ( M  1,1) ... f ( M  1, N  1) 
Weeks 1 & 2 14

array as
 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N 1 

 a a1,1 ... a1, N 1 
A  1,0 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 aM 1,0 aM 1,1 ... aM 1, N 1 
Weeks 1 & 2 15

array in MATLAB
 f (1,1) f (1, 2) ... f (1, N ) 

 f (2,1) f (2, 2) ... f (2, N ) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M ,1) f ( M , 2) ... f (M , N )
Weeks 1 & 2 16
► Discrete intensity interval [0, L-1], L=2k
► The number b of bits required to store a M × N

digitized image
b=M×N×k
Weeks 1 & 2 17
Weeks 1 & 2 18
What is a Digital Image? (cont…)
►Common image formats include:
 1 sample per point (B&W or Grayscale)
 3 samples per point (Red, Green, and Blue)
 4 samples per point (Red, Green, Blue, and “Alpha”,
a.k.a. Opacity)
►For most of this course we will focus on grey-scale

Image processing
► An image processing operation typically defines
a new image g in terms of an existing image f.
► We can transform either the range of f.
► Or the domain of f:
► What kinds of operations can each perform?

What is DIP? (cont…)
►The continuum from image processing to
computer vision can be broken up into low-,
mid- and high-level processes
Low Level Process Mid Level Process High Level Process
Input: Image Input: Image Input: Attributes
Output: Image Output: Attributes Output:
Understanding
Examples: Noise Examples: Object
removal, image recognition, Examples: Scene
sharpening segmentation understanding,
autonomous navigation
In this course we will

stop here
Key Stages in Digital Image Processing
Image Morphological
Restoration Processing
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Acquisition Recognition
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression
Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Image Aquisition
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Image Enhancement
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Image Restoration
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Morphological Processing
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Segmentation
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Object Recognition
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Representation & Description
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Image Compression
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Colour Image Processing
Image Morphological
Image
Segmentation
Enhancement
Image Object
Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Applications
&
Research Topics
Document Handling
Signature Verification
Biometrics
Fingerprint Verification /
Identification
Fingerprint Identification Research at
UNR
Minutiae Matching
Delaunay Triangulation
Object Recognition
Object Recognition Research
reference view 1 reference view 2
novel view recognized

Indexing into Databases
► Shape content
Indexing into Databases
(cont’d)
► Color, texture
Target Recognition
► Department of Defense (Army, Airforce,
Navy)
Interpretation of Aerial
Photography
Interpretation of aerial photography is a problem domain in both
computer vision and registration.
Autonomous Vehicles
► Land, Underwater, Space
Traffic Monitoring
Face Detection
Face Recognition
Face Detection/Recognition Research
at UNR
Facial Expression Recognition
Face Tracking
Face Tracking (cont’d)
Hand Gesture Recognition
► Smart Human-Computer User Interfaces
► Sign Language Recognition
Human Activity Recognition
Medical Applications
► skin cancer breast cancer
Morphing
Inserting Artificial Objects into a Scene
Companies In this Field In India
► Sarnoff Corporation
► Kritikal Solutions
► National Instruments
► GE Laboratories
► Ittiam, Bangalore
► Interra Systems, Noida
► Yahoo India (Multimedia Searching)
► nVidia Graphics, Pune (have high requirements)
► Microsoft research
► DRDO labs
► ISRO labs
►…
Neighborhood Operations in Images
Basic Relationships Between Pixels
► Neighborhood
► Adjacency
► Connectivity
► Paths
► Regions and boundaries
Weeks 1 & 2 62
► Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)
 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).
 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).
 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)
Weeks 1 & 2 63
► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values
 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).
 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p).
Weeks 1 & 2 64
► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values
 m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

m-adjacent if
(i) q is in the set N4(p), or
(ii) q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(p) has no pixels whose
values are from V.
Weeks 1 & 2 65
► Path
 A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel
q with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with
coordinates
(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)
Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
 Here n is the length of the path.
 If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.
 We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of adjacency
used.
Weeks 1 & 2 66
Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Weeks 1 & 2 67
V = {1, 2}
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent
Weeks 1 & 2 68
V = {1, 2}
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent
Weeks 1 & 2 69
V = {1, 2}
0 1 1
1,1 1,2 1,3 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0
2,1 2,2 2,3 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1
3,1 3,2 3,3 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent
The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3): The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
(ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)
Weeks 1 & 2 70
► Connected in S
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two pixels
p with coordinates (x0, y0) and q with coordinates (xn, yn)
are said to be connected in S if there exists a path
(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)
Where i,0  i  n,( xi , yi )  S
Weeks 1 & 2 71
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image
► For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p is

called a connected component of S.
► If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected

Set.
► We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set
► Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a

connected set.
► Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.
Weeks 1 & 2 72
Weeks 1 & 2 73
Weeks 1 & 2 74
Weeks 1 & 2 75
BW = imread('text.png');
imshow(BW);
CC = bwconncomp(BW);
numPixels =
cellfun(@numel,CC.PixelIdxList);
[biggest,idx] = max(numPixels);
BW(CC.PixelIdxList{idx}) = 0;
figure, imshow(BW);
Weeks 1 & 2 76
► Boundary (or border)
 The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that
have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
 If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the
set of pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.
► Foreground and background
 An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote

the union of all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement.
All the points in Ru is called foreground;
All the points in (Ru)c is called background.
Weeks 1 & 2 77
Question 1
► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

regions (of 1s) adjacent? (if 8-adjacency is used)
1 1 1
Region 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 Region 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
Weeks 1 & 2 78
Question 2
► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

parts (of 1s) adjacent? (if 4-adjacency is used)
1 1 1
Part 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 Part 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
Weeks 1 & 2 79
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the two
regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used)
1 1 1
Region 1
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 Region 2
1 1 1
1 1 1
Weeks 1 & 2 80
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the two
regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency is used)
1 1 1
foreground
1 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1 background
1 1 1
1 1 1
Weeks 1 & 2 81
Question 3
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels
if 8-adjacency is used, true or false?
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
Weeks 1 & 2 82
Question 4
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

point is part of the boundary of the 1-valued pixels
if 4-adjacency is used, true or false?
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
Weeks 1 & 2 83
Distance Measures
► Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t),

(u, v) respectively, the distance function D has
following properties:
a. D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]
b. D(p, q) = D(q, p)
c. D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)
Weeks 1 & 2 84
Distance Measures
The following are the different Distance measures:
a. Euclidean Distance :
De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2
b. City Block Distance:

D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t|
c. Chess Board Distance:

D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)
Weeks 1 & 2 85
Question 5
► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the chessboard distance between the
circled two points?
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
Weeks 1 & 2 86
Question 6
► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

value of the city-block distance between the circled
two points?
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
Weeks 1 & 2 87
Introduction to Mathematical Operations in
DIP
► Array vs. Matrix Operation
 a11 a12   b11 b12 

A  B
 21 22 
a a 
 21 22 
Array
product
b b
operator
 a11b11 a12b12  Array product
A .* B   
Matrix
 21 21 22 22 
a b a b
product
operator
 a11b11  a12b21 a11b12  a12b22  Matrix product
A*B 
 a b a b 
 21 11 22 21 21 12 22 22 
a b a b
Weeks 1 & 2 88
Introduction to Mathematical Operations in
DIP
► Linear vs. Nonlinear Operation
H  f ( x, y)  g ( x, y)
H  ai f i ( x, y )  a j f j ( x, y ) 
Additivity
 H  ai fi ( x, y )   H  a j f j ( x, y ) 
 ai H  f i ( x, y )   a j H  f j ( x, y )  Homogeneity
 ai gi ( x, y )  a j g j ( x, y )
H is said to be a linear operator;
H is said to be a nonlinear operator if it does not meet the
above qualification.
Weeks 1 & 2 89
Arithmetic Operations
► Arithmetic operations between images are array

operations. The four arithmetic operations are denoted
as
s(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y)

d(x,y) = f(x,y) – g(x,y)
p(x,y) = f(x,y) × g(x,y)
v(x,y) = f(x,y) ÷ g(x,y)
Weeks 1 & 2 90
Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction
Noiseless image: f(x,y)

Noise: n(x,y) (at every pair of coordinates (x,y), the noise is uncorrelated
and has zero average value)
Corrupted image: g(x,y)
g(x,y) = f(x,y) + n(x,y)
Reducing the noise by adding a set of noisy images, {gi(x,y)}

K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i
Weeks 1 & 2 91
K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i
1 K 
E  g ( x, y )  E   gi ( x, y )  
2
2 K
 K i 1  g ( x,y ) 1
 gi ( x , y )
K i 1
1 K 
 E    f ( x, y )  ni ( x, y ) 
 K i 1  1 2
 2
  n( x, y )
1 K
 1 K
K

 ni ( x , y )
 f ( x, y )  E  ni ( x, y )  K i 1
K i 1 
 f ( x, y )
Weeks 1 & 2 92
► In astronomy, imaging under very low light levels

frequently causes sensor noise to render single images
virtually useless for analysis.
► In astronomical observations, similar sensors for noise

reduction by observing the same scene over long
periods of time. Image averaging is then used to
reduce the noise.
Weeks 1 & 2 93
Weeks 1 & 2 94
An Example of Image Subtraction: Mask Mode Radiography
Mask h(x,y): an X-ray image of a region of a patient’s body
Live images f(x,y): X-ray images captured at TV rates after injection of

the contrast medium
Enhanced detail g(x,y)
g(x,y) = f(x,y) - h(x,y)
The procedure gives a movie showing how the contrast medium

propagates through the various arteries in the area being observed.
Weeks 1 & 2 95
Weeks 1 & 2 96
An Example of Image Multiplication
Weeks 1 & 2 97
Set and Logical Operations
Weeks 1 & 2 98
► Let A be the elements of a gray-scale image
The elements of A are triplets of the form (x, y, z), where
x and y are spatial coordinates and z denotes the intensity
at the point (x, y).
A  {( x, y, z ) | z  f ( x, y)}
► The complement of A is denoted Ac
Ac  {( x, y, K  z ) | ( x, y, z )  A}
K  2k  1; k is the number of intensity bits used to represent z
Weeks 1 & 2 99
► The union of two gray-scale images (sets) A and B is
defined as the set
A  B  {max(a, b) | a  A, b  B}
z
Weeks 1 & 2 100

Weeks 1 & 2 101

Weeks 1 & 2 102

Spatial Operations
► Single-pixel operations
Alter the values of an image’s pixels based on the intensity.
s  T ( z)
e.g.,
Weeks 1 & 2 103

Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations
The value of this pixel is

determined by a specified
operation involving the pixels in
the input image with coordinates
in Sxy
Weeks 1 & 2 104

Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations
Weeks 1 & 2 105

Geometric Spatial Transformations
► Geometric transformation (rubber-sheet transformation)

— A spatial transformation of coordinates
( x, y )  T {(v, w)}
— intensity interpolation that assigns intensity values to the spatially
transformed pixels.
► Affine transform
 t11 t12 0
 
x y 1   v w 1 t21 t22 0
t31 t32 1 
Weeks 1 & 2 106
Weeks 1 & 2 107
Image Registration
► Input and output images are available but the

transformation function is unknown.
Goal: estimate the transformation function and use it to
register the two images.
► One of the principal approaches for image registration is

to use tie points (also called control points)
 The corresponding points are known precisely in the
input and output (reference) images.
Weeks 1 & 2 108

Image Registration
► A simple model based on bilinear approximation:
 x  c1v  c2 w  c3vw  c4

 y  c5v  c6 w  c7 vw  c8
Where (v, w) and ( x, y ) are the coordinates of

tie points in the input and reference images.
Weeks 1 & 2 109

Image Registration
Weeks 1 & 2 110

Image Transform
► A particularly important class of 2-D linear transforms,

denoted T(u, v)
M 1 N 1
T (u, v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y, u , v)
x 0 y 0
where f ( x, y ) is the input image,

r ( x, y, u, v) is the forward transformation ker nel ,
variables u and v are the transform variables,
u = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and v = 0, 1, ..., N-1.
Weeks 1 & 2 111
Image Transform
► Given T(u, v), the original image f(x, y) can be recoverd

using the inverse tranformation of T(u, v).
M 1 N 1
f ( x, y )    T (u , v) s ( x, y, u , v)
u 0 v 0
where s ( x, y, u , v) is the inverse transformation ker nel ,

x = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and y = 0, 1, ..., N-1.
Weeks 1 & 2 112

Image Transform
Weeks 1 & 2 113

Example: Image Denoising by Using DCT Transform
Weeks 1 & 2 114

Forward Transform Kernel
M 1 N 1
T (u, v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y, u, v)
x 0 y 0
The kernel r ( x, y, u, v) is said to be SEPERABLE if

r ( x, y, u, v)  r1 ( x, u )r2 ( y, v)
In addition, the kernel is said to be SYMMETRIC if

r1 ( x, u ) is functionally equal to r2 ( y, v), so that
r ( x, y, u, v)  r1 ( x, u )r1 ( y, u )
Weeks 1 & 2 115
The Kernels for 2-D Fourier Transform
The forward kernel

 j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
r ( x, y , u , v )  e
Where j = 1
The inverse kernel

1 j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
s ( x, y , u , v )  e
MN
Weeks 1 & 2 116
2-D Fourier Transform
M 1 N 1
T (u, v)    f ( x, y )e  j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
x 0 y 0
M 1 N 1
1
f ( x, y ) 
MN
  T (u, v)e
u 0 v 0
j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
Weeks 1 & 2 117

Probabilistic Methods
Let zi , i  0, 1, 2, ..., L -1, denote the values of all possible intensities
in an M  N digital image. The probability, p( zk ), of intensity level
zk occurring in a given image is estimated as
nk
p ( zk ) ,
MN
where nk is the number of times that intensity zk occurs in the image.
L 1
 p( z ) 1
k 0
k
The mean (average) intensity is given by

L 1
m =  zk p ( zk )
k 0
Weeks 1 & 2 118
Probabilistic Methods
The variance of the intensities is given by

L 1
 2 =  ( z k  m) 2 p ( z k )
k 0
The n th moment of the intensity variable z is

L 1
un ( z ) = (z
k 0
k  m) p( zk )
n
Weeks 1 & 2 119

Example: Comparison of Standard Deviation
Values
  14.3   31.6   49.2
Weeks 1 & 2 120

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Lectures 1-3

Digital Image Processing

f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y )

 0.01 for black velvet

 0.65 for stainless steel

 0.80 for flat-white wall paint

 0.90 for silver-plated metal

 0.93 for snow

► The representation of an M×N numerical

 f (0, 0) f (0,1) ... f (0, N  1) 

► The representation of an M×N numerical

 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N 1 

► The representation of an M×N numerical

 f (1,1) f (1, 2) ... f (1, N ) 

► Discrete intensity interval [0, L-1], L=2k

► The number b of bits required to store a M × N

►For most of this course we will focus on grey-scale

► What kinds of operations can each perform?

In this course we will

novel view recognized

► Regions and boundaries

► Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

 m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

(i) q is in the set N4(p), or

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

 Here n is the length of the path.

 If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where i,0  i  n,( xi , yi )  S

Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image

► For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p is

► If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected

► We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

► Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a

► Boundary (or border)

► Foreground and background

 An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are the two

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the circled

► Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t),

a. D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]

c. D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)

The following are the different Distance measures:

b. City Block Distance:

c. Chess Board Distance:

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s the

 a11 a12   b11 b12 

► Arithmetic operations between images are array

s(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y)

Noiseless image: f(x,y)

Reducing the noise by adding a set of noisy images, {gi(x,y)}