UNIT V

Part – A) Frequency Management

and Channel
Assignment
Part – B) Handoff, Dropped Calls
 Topics (Part – A)

 Numbering and grouping

 setup access and paging channels
 channel assignments to cell sites and mobile units
 channel sharing and borrowing
 sectorization
 overlaid cells
 non fixed channel assignment
 Topics (Part – B)
 Handoff initiation
 types of Handoff
 delayed handoff
 Advantages of handoffs
 Power difference handoff
 forced handoff
 mobile assigned handoff
 soft handoff
 Intersystem handoff
 Introduction to dropped call rates and their evaluation
 • Frequency management
• Refers to designating set-up channels and voice channels (done
by the FCC), numbering the channels (done by the FCC),and
grouping the voice channels into subsets (done by each system
according to its preference).
• Channel assignment
• Refers to the allocation of specific channels to cell sites and
mobile units.
• For a short-term assignment, one channel assignment per call is
handled by the mobile telephone switching office (MTSO).
• Ideally channel assignment should be based on causing the least
interference in the system.
 Numbering the channel
• The total number of channels at present (January 1988) is 832.
But most mobile units and systems are still operating on 666
channels.
• A channel consists of two frequency channel bandwidths, one
in the low band and one in the high band.
• The 666 channels are divided into two groups: block A system
and block B system. Each market (i.e., each city) has two
systems). Each block has 333 channels, as shown in Fig.
• The 42 set-up channels are assigned as follows.
• Channels 313333 block A
• Channels 334354 block B
Frequency-management chart.
 Numbering the channel
• The voice channels are assigned as follows.
• Channels 1312 (312 voice channels) block A
• Channels 355666 (312 voice channels) block B

• In the new additional spectrum allocation of 10 MHz, an additional

166 channels are assigned. Since a 1 MHz is assigned below 825
MHz (or 870 MHz).

• In the future, additional channels will be numbered up to 849 MHz

(or 894 MHz) and will then circle back. The last channel number is
1023 (=210). There are no channels between channels 799 and 991.
(312 voice channels) block B
New additional spectrum allocation
 Grouping into Subsets
• The number of voice channels for each system* is 312. We can
group these into any number of subsets. Since there are 21 set-
up channels for each system, it is logical to group the 312
channels into 21 subsets.
• Each subset then consists of 16 channels. In each set, the closest
adjacent channel is 21 channels away.
• The 16 channels in each subset can be mounted on a frame and
connected to a channel combiner.
• The minimum separation between three subsets is 7 channels. If
six subsets are equipped in an omnicell site, the minimum
separation between two adjacent channels can be only three
(21/6 > 3) physical channel bandwidths.
 Frequency-Spectrum Utilization
• Geographic location is an important factor in the application
of the frequency-reuse concept in mobile cellular technology
to increase spectrum efficiency.
• Frequency management involving the assignment of proper
channels in different cells can increase spectrum efficiency.
• Thus, within a cell, the channel assignment for each call is
studied. Other factors, such as narrowing of the frequency
band, off-air call setup, queuing, and call redirect, are
described.
• The techniques for increasing frequency spectrum can be
classified as
 Techniques for increasing frequency
spectrum
• The techniques for increasing frequency spectrum can be classified as
• 1. Increasing the number of radio channels using narrow banding, spread
spectrum, or time division.
2. Improving spatial frequency-spectrum reuse
• 3. Frequency management and channel assignment
• 4. Improving spectrum efficiency in time
• 5. Reducing the load of invalid calls
• a. Off-air call setup reducing the load of set-up channels
• b. Voice storage service for No-Answer calls
• c. Call forwarding
• d. Reducing the customers' Keep-Dialing cases
• e. Call waiting for Busy-Call situations
• f. Queuing
 Set-up Channels

• Set-up channels, also called control channels, are the

channels designated to set up calls.
• A system can be operated without set-up channels.
• If we are choosing such a system, then all 333 channels in
each cellular system (block A or block B) can be voice
channels.
• However, each mobile unit must then scan 333 channels
continuously and detect the signaling for its call.
• A customer who wants to initiate a call must scan all the
channels and find an idle (unoccupied) one to use.
 Contd…..
• Set-up channels can be classified by usage into two types: access channels
and paging channels.
• An access channel is used for the mobile-originating calls and paging
channels for the land-originating calls. In a low-traffic system, access
channels and paging channels are the same.
• Normally one setup channel is also specified by two operations as a
forward set-up channel (using the upper band) and a reverse set-up channel
(using the lower band).
• The forward set-up channel functions as the paging channel for responding
to the mobile-originating calls. The reverse set-up channel functions as the
access channel for the responder to the paging call.
• The forward set-up channel is transmitted at the cell site, and the reverse
set-up channel is transmitted at the mobile unit. All set-up channels carry
data information only.
 Access Channels
• In mobile-originating calls, the mobile unit scans its 21 set-up channels and
chooses the strongest one. Because each setup channel is associated with
one cell, the strongest set-up channel indicates which cell is to serve the
mobile originating calls.

• The mobile unit detects the system information transmitted from the cell
site. Also, the mobile unit monitors the Busy/Idle status bits over the
desired forward set-up channel. When the Idle bits are received, the mobile
unit can use the corresponding reverse set-up channel to initiate a call.

• Frequently only one system operates in a given city; for instance, block B
system might be operating and the mobile unit could be set to "preferable
A system." When the mobile unit first scans the 21 set-up channels in
block A, two conditions can occur.
 Operational Functions
• The operational functions are described as follows:

• 1. Power of a forward set-up channel [or forward control

channel (FOCC)].
• 2. The set-up channel received level
• 3. Change power at the mobile unit
• a. Mobile station control message
• b. System parameter overhead message
• c. Control-filler message
• 4. Direct call retry
 Paging Channels
• Each cell site has been allocated its own set-up channel (control channel).
The assigned forward set-up channel (FOCC) of each cell site is used to
page the mobile unit with the same mobile station control message.

• The simplest way is to page from all the cell sites. This can occupy a large
amount of the traffic load.

• The other way is to page in an area corresponding to the mobile unit phone
number. If there is no answer, the system tries to page in other areas.
• The drawback is that response time is sometimes too long.

• When the mobile unit responds to the page on the reverse set-up channel,
the cell site which receives the response checks the signal reception level
and makes a decision regarding the voice channel assignment based on
least interference in the selected sector or under-lay-overlay region.
 Access Channels
• Self-Location Scheme at the Mobile Unit
• It is necessary to keep the reverse set-up channels as open as
possible. For this reason, the self-location scheme at the mobile
unit is adapted.

• The mobile unit selects a set-up channel of one cell site and
makes a mobile-originating call. It is called a self-location
scheme.
• Autonomous Registration
• If a mobile station is equipped for autonomous registration, then
the mobile station stores the value of the last registration number
(REGID) received on a forward control channel
 Contd….
• Traffic Load on a Set-up Channel and on N Voice Channels
• When the traffic of a cell is increasing, more radios will be
installed. When a cell has 90 voice channels (radios), one setup
channel must coordinate them in order to set up the calls.

• On the average, the cell site takes a mobile-originating call on a

reverse set-up channel for 100 ms, and the interval between calls is
25 ms (including calls colliding in the air).

• Thus, in 1 h, if a queuing scheme is applied, the maximum number

of calls that a set-up channel can accommodate is 28,800 calls/h
 Contd….
• Selecting a Voice Channel
• Assume that a mobile unit calls or responds to a call through a reverse set-
up channel which is received from an omnidirectional antenna and the
voice channels are assigned from a forward set-up channel at one of three
120° -sector directional antennas.

• For Mobile-originating Calls

• The mobile unit selects a cell site based on its received signal-strength
indicator (RSSI) reading. When a call of a mobile unit is received by the
cell site, the set-up channel receives it through an omnidirectional antenna.
• The cell-site RSSI scans the incoming signals through three directional
antennas and determines which sector is the strongest one.
 Contd….
• The MTSO then assigns a channel from among those
channels designated in that sector. In some systems, a set-
up channel is assigned to each sector of a cell.

• For Paging Calls

• When any call responds to the cell site, the cell-site RSSI
will measure the incoming signal from the three directional
antennas and find the strongest sector in which the channel
can be assigned to the mobile unit.
 Channel Assignment
• Channel Assignment to the Cell Sites Fixed Channel Assignment
• Set-up Channels
• Voice Channels
• Supervisory Audio Tone (SAT)
• Channel Assignment to Traveling Mobile Units
• Underlay-overlay1:The traffic capacity at an omnidirectional cell or
a directional cell can be increased by using the underlayoverlay
arrangement.
• The underlay is the inner circle, and the overlay is the outer ring. The
transmitted powers of the voice channels at the site are adjusted for
these two areas. Then different voice frequencies are assigned to
each area.
Underlay-overlay1 Arrangements
 Underlay-overlay1
• Frequency Assignment
• We assign the frequencies by a set of channels or any part of a set or
more than one set of the total 21 sets. Borrowedfrequency sets are
used when needed.
• we can assign frequencies intelligently at one site or at one sector
without interfering with adjacent cochannel sectors or cochannel cells.

• Tilted Antenna
• The tilted directional antenna arrangement can eliminate interference.
Sometimes antenna tilting is more effective than decreasing antenna
height, especially in areas of tall trees or at high sites. When the tilting
angles become 22° or greater, the horizontal pattern creates a notch in
the front of the antenna, which can further reduce the interference
 Fixed Channel Assignment
• Adjacent-Channel Assignment
• Adjacent-channel assignment includes neighboring-channel
assignment and next-channel assignment. The near-endfarend (ratio)
interference can occur among the neighboring channels (four channels
on each side of the desired channel).
• Therefore, within a cell we have to be sure to assign neighboring
channels in an omnidirectional-cell system and in a directional-
antenna- cell system properly.
• In an omnidirectional-cell system, if one channel is assigned to the
middle cell of seven cells, next channels cannot be assigned in the
same cell. Also, no next channel (preferably including neighboring
channels) should be assigned in the six neighboring sites in the same
cell system area
Adjacent-Channel Assignment
 Contd….
• In an omnidirectional-cell system, if one channel is assigned to the
middle cell of seven cells, next channels cannot be assigned in the
same cell. Also, no next channel (preferably including neighboring
channels) should be assigned in the six neighboring sites in the same
cell system area

In a directional-antenna-cell system, if one channel is assigned to a

face, next channels cannot be assigned to the same face or to the other
two faces in the same cell. Also, next channels cannot be assigned to
the other two faces at the same cell site .

Sometimes the next channels are assigned in the next sector of the
same cell in order to increase capacity. Then performance can still be
in the tolerance range if the design is proper.
Channel Sharing and Borrowing2,3
 Contd….
• Channel sharing is a short-term traffic-relief scheme. A scheme used
for a seven-cell three-face system as shown in the above fig.
• There are 21 channel sets, with each set consisting of about 16
channels. The fig shows the channel set numbers. When a cell needs
more channels, the channels of another face at the same cell site can
be shared to handle the short termoverload.
• To obey the adjacent-channel assignment algorithm, the sharing is
always cyclic. Sharing always increases the trunking efficiency of
channels. Since we cannot allow adjacent channels to share with the
nominal channels in the same cell, channel sets 4 and 5 cannot both
be shared with channel sets 12 and 18, as indicated by the grid mark.
• Many grid marks are indicated in Fig. for the same reason.
• Channel Borrowing
• Channel borrowing is usually handled on a long term basis.
The extent of borrowing more available channels from other
cells depends on the traffic density in the area. Channel
borrowing can be implemented from one cell-site face to
another face at the same cell site.

• In addition, the central cell site can borrow channels from

neighboring cells. The channel-borrowing scheme is used
primarily for slowly-growing systems. It is often helpful in
delaying cell splitting in peak traffic areas. Since cell splitting
is costly, it should be implemented only as a last resort.
 Sectorization
• The total number of available channels can be divided into sets
(subgroups) depending on the sectorization of the cell
configuration: the 120°-sector system, the 60°-sector system, and
the 45°-sector system

• Sectorization serves the same purpose as the channel-borrowing

scheme in delaying cell splitting. In addition, channel coordination
to avoid cochannel interference is much easier in sectorization
than in cell splitting.

• Given the same number of channels,trunking efficiency decreases

in sectorization.
Comparison of Omnicells (Nonsectorized Cells)
and Sectorized Cells
• Omnicells
• If a K = 7 frequency-reuse pattern is used, the frequency sets
assigned in each cell can be followed by the
frequencymanagement chart. However, terrain is seldom flat;
therefore, K = 12 is sometimes needed for reducing cochannel
interference. For K = 12, the channel-reuse distance is D =
6R, or the cochannel reduction factor q = 6.

• Sectorized Cells

There are three basic types

 Sectorized cells
• There are three basic types.
• 1. The 120°-sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving
sectorization. Each sector has an assigned a number of frequencies.
Changing sectors during a call requires handoffs.
• 2. The 60°-sector cell is used for both transmitting and receiving
sectorization. Changing sectors during a call requires handoffs. More
handoffs are expected for a 60° sector than a 120° sector in areas close to
cell sites (close-in areas).
• 3. The 120°- or 60°-sector cell is used for receiving sectorization only. In
this case, the transmitting antenna is omnidirectional. The number of
channels in this cell is not subdivided for each sector. Therefore, no
handoffs are required when changing sectors. This receiving-sectorization-
only configuration does not decrease interference or increase the D/R ratio;
it only allows for a more accurate decision regarding handing off the calls
to neighboring cells.
 Underlay-overlay Arrangement1
• In actual cellular systems cell grids are seldom uniform
because of varying traffic conditions in different areas and
cellsite locations.
• Overlaid Cells

• To permit the two groups to reuse the channels in two

different cell-reuse patterns of the same size, an ''underlaid"
small cell is sometimes established at the same cell site as the
large cell (see Fig. 8.3). The "doughnut" (large) and "hole"
(small) cells are treated as two different cells. They are
usually considered as ''neighboring cells."
 Implementation
• The antenna of a set-up channel is usually omnidirectional. When an
incoming call is received by the set-up channel and its signal strength is
higher than a level L, the underlaid cell is assigned; otherwise, the
overlaid cell is assigned
• .
• The handoffs are implemented between the underlaid and overlaid cells.
In order to avoid the unnecessary handoffs, we may choose two levels
L1 and L2 and L1 > L2 as shown in Fig.

• When a mobile signal is higher than a level L1 the call is handed off to
the underlaid cell. When a signal is lower than a level L2 the call is
handed off to the overlaid cell. The channels assigned in the underlaid
cell have more protection against cochannel interference
Reuse Partition scheme
Reuse portioning performance
 Reuse Partition
• Through implementation of the overlaid-cell concept, one possible
operation is to apply a multiple-K system operation, where K is the
number of frequency-reuse cells. The conventional system uses K =
7. But if one K is used for the underlaid cells, then this multiple-K
system can have an additional 20 percent more spectrum efficiency
than the single K system with an equivalent voice quality.

• The decrease in the number of cell sites which results from

implementation of the multiple K systems is shown in Fig. The
advantages of using this partition based on the range of K are

• 1. The K range is 3 to 9; the operational call quality can be

adjusted and more reuse patterns are available if needed.
 Contd…..
• The decrease in the number of cell sites which results from
implementation of the multiple K systems is shown in Fig. The
advantages of using this partition based on the range of K are

• 1. The K range is 3 to 9; the operational call quality can be

adjusted and more reuse patterns are available if needed
• 2. Each channel set of old K = 9 systems is the subset of new
K = 3 systems. Therefore, the amount of radio retuning in
each cell in this arrangement is minimal.
• 3. When cell splitting is implemented, all present channel
assignments can be retained.
 Nonfixed Channel Assignment
Algorithms
• Description of Different Algorithms
• Fixed Channel Algorithm
• The fixed channel assignment (FCA) algorithm is the most common
algorithm adopted in many cellular systems. In this algorithm, each cell
assigns its own radio channels to the vehicles within its cell.
• Dynamic Channel Assignment
• In dynamic channel assignment (DCA), no fixed channels are assigned to
each cell. Therefore, any channel in a composite of 312 radio channels can
be assigned to the mobile unit. This means that a channel is assigned
directly to a mobile unit. On the basis of overall system performance, DCA
can also be used during a call.
 Contd…..
• Hybrid Channel Assignment
• Hybrid channel assignment (HCA) is a combination of FCA and DCA. A
portion of the total frequency channels will use FCA and the rest will use
DCA.
• Borrowing Channel Assignment
• Borrowing channel assignment (BCA) uses FCA as a normal assignment
condition. When all the fixed channels are occupied, then the cell borrows
channels from the neighboring cells.
• Forcible-Borrowing Channel Assignment
• In forcible-borrowing channel assignment (FBCA), if a channel is in
operation and the situation warrants it, channels must be borrowed from
the neighboring cells and at the same time, another voice channel will be
assigned to continue the call in the neighboring cell. or the neighboring cell
of the neighboring cell. If all the channels in the neighboring cells cannot
be borrowed because of interference problems, the FBCA stops.
 Contd…..
• There are many different ways of implementing FBCA. In a general sense,
FBCA can also be applied while accounting for the forcible borrowing of
the channels within a fixed channel set to reduce the chance of cochannel
assignment in a reuse cell pattern.

• The FBCA algorithm is based on assigning a channel dynamically but

obeying the rule of reuse distance. The distance between the two cells is
reuse distance, which is the minimum distance at which no cochannel
interference would occur.

• Very infrequently, no channel can be borrowed in the neighboring cells.

Even those channels currently in operation can be forcibly borrowed and
will be replaced by a new channel in the neighboring cell
Cellular System
 Simulation Process and Results

Simulation Process and Results

• On the basis of the FBCA, FCA, and BCA algorithms, a
seven-cell reuse pattern with an average blocking of 3
percent is assumed and the total traffic service in an area
is 250 erlangs. The traffic distributions are
• (1) uniform traffic distribution11 channels per cell;
• (2) a nonuniform traffic distributionthe number of
channels in each cell is dependent on the vehicle
distribution .
• The simulation model is described as follows:
Average blocking in spatially uniform
traffic distribution
Average blocking in spatially non
uniform traffic distribution
Comparison of Average Blockings from
three different schemes
• The simulation model is described as follows:
• 1. Randomly select the cell (among 41 cells).
• 2. Determine the state of the vehicle in the cell (idle, off-hook,
on-hook, handoff).
• 3. In off-hook or handoff state, search for an idle channel. The
average number of handoffs is assumed to be 0.2 times per call.
However, FBCA will increase the number of handoffs.
• Average Blocking
• Two average blocking cases illustrating this simulation are
shown in Fig. In a uniform traffic condition the 3 percent
blocking of both BCA and FBCA will result in a load
 Handoffs and Dropped Calls

• Why Handoffs
• Once a call is established, the set-up channel is not used again
during the call period. Therefore, handoff is always implemented
on the voice channel. The value of implementing handoffs is
dependent on the size of the cell.
• Handoff is needed in two situations where the cell site receives
weak signals from the mobile unit:
• (1) at the cell boundary, say, 100 dBm, which is the level for
requesting a handoff in a noise-limited environment; and
• (2) when the mobile unit is reaching the signal-strength holes
(gaps) within the cell site
 Types of Handoff
• Two Types of Handoff

• There are two types of handoff:

• (1) that based on signal strength and
• (2) that based on carrier-to-interference ratio. The handoff criteria are
different for these two types.

• In type 1, the signal-strength threshold level for handoff is 100 dBm in

• noise-limited systems and 95 dBm in interference-limited systems.

• In type 2, the value of C/I at the cell boundary for handoff should be 18 dB in
order to have toll quality voice. Sometimes, a low value of C/I may be used
for capacity reasons.
Occurrence of handoff.
 Contd…..
• Some systems use SAT information together with the received signal
level to determine handoffs.

• Handoffs can be controlled by using the carrier-to-interference ratio

C/I

• we can set a level based on C/I, so C drops as a function of distance

but I is dependent on the location. If the handoff is dependent on C/I,
and if the C/I drops, it does so in response to increase in
• (1) propagation distance or
• (2) interference
• In both cases, handoff should take place.
The probability of requiring handoff.
 Contd…..
• To find the probability of requiring a handoff,
• Suppose that a mobile unit randomly initiates a call in a 16-km (10-mi)
cell. The vehicle speed is also randomly chosen between 8 and 96 km/h
(5 to 60 mi/h).

• The direction is randomly chosen to be between 0 and 360° then the

chance of reaching the boundary is dependent on the call holding time.

• Figure depicts the probability curve for requiring handoff. Table

summarizes the results. If the call holding time is 1.76 min, the only
chance of reaching the boundary is 11 percent, or the chance that a
handoff will occur for the call is 11 percent. If the call holding time
Probability of Having a Handoff in
a 10-mi Coverage Area
Handoff probability, % Call length, min

11.3 1.76

18 3

42.6 6

59.3 9
 Number of Handoffs Per Call
• The smaller the cell size, the greater the number and the
value of implementing handoffs. The number of handoffs
per call is relative to cell size.

• From the simulation, we may find

• 0.2 handoff per call in a 16- to 24-km cell

• 12 handoffs per call in a 3.2- to 8-km cell
• 34 handoffs per call in a 1.6-to 3.2-km cell
 Initiation of a Handoff
• At the cell site, signal strength is always monitored from a reverse voice
channel. When the signal strength reaches the level of a handoff (higher
than the threshold level for the minimum required voice quality), then the
cell site sends a request to the mobile telephone switching level (MTSO)
for a handoff on the call.
• An intelligent decision can also be made at the cell site as to whether the
handoff should have taken place earlier or later. If an unnecessary handoff
is requested, then the decision was made too early. If a failure handoff
occurs, then a decision was made too late.
• There are two circumstances where handoffs are necessary but cannot be
made:
• (1) when the mobile unit is located at a signal-strength hole within a cell
but not at the boundary and
• (2) when the mobile unit approaches a cell boundary but no channels in the
new cell are available
Parameters for handling a handoff
 Contd…
• There are two circumstances where handoffs are necessary but cannot be
made:
• (1) when the mobile unit is located at a signal-strength hole within a cell
but not at the boundary and
• (2) when the mobile unit approaches a cell boundary but no channels in
the new cell are available.
• In case 1, the call must be kept in the old frequency channel until it is
dropped as the result of an unacceptable signal level.
• In case 2, the new cell must reassign one of its frequency channels
within a reasonably short period or the call will be dropped.
• The MTSO usually controls the frequency assignment in each cell and
can rearrange channel assignments or split cells when they are necessary.
 Delaying a Handoff
• Two-Handoff-level Algorithm
• The purpose of creating two request handoff levels is to provide
more opportunity for a successful handoff. A handoff could be
delayed if no available cell could take the call.
• A plot of signal strength with two request handoff levels and a
threshold level is shown in Fig.
• plot of average signal strength is recorded on the channel received
signal-strength indicator (RSSI) which is installed at each channel
receiver at the cell site. When the signal strength drops below the
first handoff level, a handoff request is initiated.
• At the first handoff level, the handoff takes place if the new signal
is stronger .However, when the second handoff level is reached, the
call will be handed off with no condition.
A two-level handoff scheme
 Advantage of Delayed Handoffs
• The MTSO always handles the handoff call first and the originating calls
second. If no neighboring calls are available after the second handoff level
is reached, the call continues until the signal strength drops below the
threshold level; then the call is dropped.
• If the supervisory audio tone (SAT) is not sent back to the cell site by the
mobile unit within 5 s, the cell site turns off the transmitter.
• Advantage of Delayed Handoffs
• If the neighboring cells are busy, delayed handoff may take place. In
principle, when call traffic is heavy, the switching processor is loaded, and
thus a lower number of handoffs would help the processor handle call
processing more adequately. Of course, it is very likely that after the
second handoff level is reached, the call may be dropped with great
probability.
 Contd…
• The other advantage of having a two-handoff-level algorithm is that it
makes the handoff occur at the proper location and eliminates possible
interference in the system.
• Forced Handoffs
• A forced handoff is defined as a handoff which would normally occur
but is prevented from happening, or a handoff that should not occur but
is forced to happen.
• Controlling a Handoff
• The cell site can assign a low handoff threshold in a cell to keep a
mobile unit in a cell longer or assign a high handoff threshold level to
request a handoff earlier. The MTSO also can control a handoff by
making either a handoff earlier or later, after receiving a handoff request
from a cell site.
 Queuing of Handoffs
• Creating a Handoff
• In this case, the cell site does not request a handoff but the MTSO finds
that some cells are too congested while others are not. Then the MTSO can
request cell sites to create early handoffs for those congested cells.
• In other words, a cell site has to follow the MTSO's order and increase the
handoff threshold to push the mobile units at the new boundary and to
hand off earlier.
• Queuing of Handoffs
• Queuing of handoffs is more effective than two-threshold-level handoffs.
The MTSO will queue the requests of handoff calls instead of rejecting
them if the new cell sites are busy.
• If handoff requests arrive at the MTSO uniformly, then the queuing
scheme is not needed.
Probability and blocking probability graph showing
blocking probability
for originating calls queuing for originating calls
(N = 70).
 Probability and blocking probability graph showing
blocking probability
for handoff calls (queuing for originating calls) (N =
70).
 Probability and blocking probability graph showing
blocking probability
for handoff calls (queuing for handoff calls)(N = 70).
 Probability and blocking probability graph showing
blocking probability
for originating calls (queuing for handoff calls) (N =
70).
Cell-site handoff-only scheme
 Cell-site Handoff Only
• The mobile unit has been assigned a frequency and talks to its home cell
site while it travels. When the mobile unit leaves its home cell and enters a
new cell, its frequency does not change; rather, the new cell must tune into
the frequency of the mobile unit .
• In this case only the cell sites need the frequency information of the mobile
unit. Then the aspects of mobile unit control can be greatly simplified, and
there will be no need to provide handoff capability at the mobile unit. The
cost will also be lower.
• This scheme can be recommended only in areas of very low traffic.
• When the traffic is dense, frequency coordination is necessary for the
cellular system. Then if a mobile unit does not change frequency on travel
from cell to cell, other mobile units then must change frequency to avoid
interference
Intersystem handoffs
 Contd…
• Intersystem handoff can take place; means that a call handoff can be transferred
from one system to a second system so that the call be continued while the
mobile unit enters the second system..
• The software in the MTSO must be modified to apply this situation. Consider the
simple diagram shown in Fig. The car travels on a highway and the driver
originates a call in system A.
• Then the car leaves cell site A of system A and enters cell site B of
system B. Cell sites A and B are controlled by two different MTSOs.
When the mobile unit signal becomes weak in cell site A, MTSO A
searches for a candidate cell site in its system and cannot find one.
• The MTSO A sends the handoff request to MTSO B through a
dedicated line between MTSO A and MTSO B, and MTSO B makes
a complete handoff during the call conversation.
 Introduction to Dropped Call Rate
• The Definition of Dropped Call Rate

• The definition of a dropped call is after the call is established but before it
is properly terminated. The definition of ''the call is established" means that
the call is setup completely by the setup channel. If there is a possibility of
a call drop due to no available voice channels, this is counted as a blocked
call not a dropped call.
• If there is a possibility that a call will drop due to the poor signal of the
assigned voice channel, this is considered a dropped call.
• This may happen when the mobile or portable units are at a standstill and
the radio carrier is changed from a strong setup channel to a weak voice
channel due to the selective frequency fading phenomenon.
 perception of dropped call rate
• The perception of dropped call rate by the subscribers can be higher
due to:
• 1. The subscriber unit not functioning properly (needs repair).
• 2. The user operating the portable unit in a vehicle (misused).
• 3. The user not knowing how to get the best reception from a
portable unit (needs education).
• Consideration of Dropped Calls
• In principle, dropped call rate can be set very low if we do not need
to maintain the voice quality. The dropped call rate and the specified
voice quality level are inversely proportional.
• The dropped call rate can be calculated by taking the following
factors into consideration:
The diagram for calculating the
dropped calls due to handoffs.
 Calculation dropped call rate
• 1. Provide signal coverage based on the percentage (say
90%) that all the received signal will be above a given
signal level.
• 2. Maintain the specified co-channel and adjacent channel
interference levels in each cell during a busy hour, i.e., the
worst interference case.
• 3. Since the performance of the call dropped rate is
calculated as possible call dropping in every stage from the
radio link to the PSTN connection, the response time of the
handoff in the network will be a factor when the cell
becomes small, the response time for a handoff request has
to be shorter in order to reduce the call dropped rate.
 Contd…
• 4. The signaling of the handoff and the MAHO algorithm will also
impact the call dropped rate.

• 5. The relationship among the voice quality, system capacity and call
dropped rate can be expressed through a common parameter C/I.

• Relationship among Capacity, Voice Quality, Dropped Call Rate is

given.
• The coverage in cellular cells always uses the coverage of 90%
equal-strength contour. The prediction tool (Lee Model) is used to
predict the equal-strength contour at level C with 50% time .and 50%
area in a cell