Cell Coverage for

Signal & Traffic

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

OBTAINING THE MOBILE POINT-TO-POINT MODEL (LEE

MODEL)

PROPAGATION OVER WATER OR FLAT OPEN AREA

FOLIAGE LOSS

PROPAGATION IN NEAR-IN DISTANCE

LONG-DISTANCE PROPAGATION

PATH LOSS FROM A POINT-TO-POINT PREDICTION

MODEL

CELL-SITE ANTENNA HEIGHTS AND SIGNAL COVERAGE

CELLS

MOBILE-TO-MOBILE PROPAGATION
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Cell coverage can be based on signal coverage or on traffic coverage.

We have to examine the service area as occurring in one of the

following environments:

Human-made structures
In a building area
In an open area
In a suburban area
In an urban area

Natural terrains
Over flat terrain
Over hilly terrain
Over water
Through foliage areas
Ground Incident Angle and Ground Elevation Angle

A coordinate sketch in a flat terrain.

The ground incident angle θ is the angle of wave arrival incidently
pointing to the ground.

The ground elevation angle φ is the angle of wave arrival at the mobile unit.

Ground Reflection Angle and Reflection Point

A coordinate sketch in a hilly terrain.

 THE MOBILE POINT-TO-POINT MODEL (LEE MODEL)

This mobile point-to-point model is obtained in three steps:

(1) generate a standard condition.

(2) obtain an area-to-area prediction model.

(3) obtain a mobile point-to-point model using the area-to-area model as a base.
A Standard Condition
To generate a standard condition and provide correction factors, we have used
the standard conditions shown on the left side and the correction factors on the
right side of Table

Generating a Standard Condition

Effect of the Human-Made Structures.

Because the terrain configuration of each city is different, and the human-
made structure of each city is also unique.

The way to factor out the effect due to the terrain configuration from the man-
made structures is to work out a way to obtain the path loss curve for the area.

The path loss curve obtained on virtually flat ground indicates the effects of
the signal loss due to solely human-made structures.
We may have to measure signal strengths at those high spots and
also at the low spots surrounding the cell sites.

Propagation path loss curves for human-made structures.

(a) For selecting measurement areas
Then the average path loss slope, which is a combination of measurements
from high spots and low spots along different radio paths in a general area,
represents the signal received as if it is from a flat area affected only by a
different local human-made structured environment.

(b) path loss phenomenon.

Therefore, the differences in area-to-area prediction curves are due to the
different manmade structures.

The measurements made in urban areas are different from those made in
suburban and open areas.

Any area-to-area prediction model can be used as a first step toward

achieving the point-to-point prediction model.

Area-to-area prediction model which is described here can be represented by

two parameters:
(1) the 1-mi (or 1-km) intercept point
(2) the path-loss slope.

The 1-mi intercept point is the power received at a distance of 1 mi from the
transmitter.

There are two general approaches to finding the values of the two parameters
experimentally.
1. Compare the area of interest with an area of similar human-made structures
which presents a curve as shown.

(c) Propagation path loss in different cities.

2. If the human-made structures of a city are different from the cities listed in
previous figure, a simple measurement should be carried out.

Set up a transmitting antenna at the center of a general area.

As long as the building height is comparable to the others in the area, the
antenna location is not critical.

Take six or seven measured data points around the 1-mi intercept and
around the 10-mi boundary based on the high and low spots.

Then compute the average of the 1 mi data points and of the 10 mi data
points.

By connecting the two values, the path-loss slope can be obtained.

If the area is very hilly, then the data points measured at a given distance
from the base station in different locations can be far apart.

In this case, we may take more measured data points to obtain the average
path-loss slope.

If the terrain of the hilly area is generally sloped, then we have to convert
the data points that were measured on the sloped terrain to a flat terrain in
that area.

The conversion is based on the effective antenna-height gain as

where h1 is the actual height and he is the effective antenna height at either
the 1- or 10-mi locations.
Path-loss Phenomena

The plotted curves shown in the previous figure have different 1-mi intercepts
and different slopes.
(d) Explanation of the path-loss phenomenon.
The Phase Difference between a Direct Path and a Ground-
Reflected Path

A simple model.
Based on a direct path and a ground-reflected path, where a direct path is a
line-of-sight (LOS) path with its received power

and a ground-reflected path with its reflection coefficient and phase changed
after reflection, the sum of the two wave paths can be expressed as:

where av = the reflection coefficient

φ = the phase difference between a direct path and a reflected path
P0 = the transmitted power
d = the distance
λ = the wavelength
In a mobile environment av = −1 because of the small incident angle of the
ground wave caused by a relatively low cell-site antenna height.
Thus,
Then the received power of becomes :

If φ is less than 0.6 rad, then sin(φ/2) ≈ φ/2, cos(φ/2) ≈ 1 and equation
simplifies to

From Equation, we can deduce two relationships as follows:

where ΔP is the power difference in decibels between two different path
lengths and ΔG is the gain (or loss) in decibels obtained from two different
antenna heights at the cell site.
 PROPAGATION OVER WATER OR FLAT OPEN AREA

Propagation over water or flat open area is becoming a big concern because
it is very easy to interfere with other cells if we do not make the correct
arrangements. Interference resulting from propagation over the water can
be controlled if we know the cause.

the permittivities of seawater and fresh water are the same, but the
conductivities of seawater and fresh water are different.

Then (seawater) = 80 − j84 and ( fresh water) = 80 − j0.021.

Based upon the reflection coefficients formula with a small incident angle,
both the reflection coefficients for horizontal polarized waves and vertically
polarized waves approach 1.

Because the 180◦ phase change occurs at the ground reflection point, the
reflection coefficient is −1.
Below shown are the two antennas, one at the cell site and the other at the
mobile unit, are well above sea level, two reflection points are generated.

A model for propagation over water.

The formula to find the field strength under the circumstances of a fixed point-
to-point transmission and a land-mobile transmission over a water or flat open
land condition.
Between Fixed Stations
The point-to-point transmission between the fixed stations over the water or
flat open land can be estimated as follows. The received power Pr can be
expressed as
Propagation between two fixed stations over water or flat open land.
The are the complex reflection coefficients and can be found from the
formula

When the vertical incidence is small, θ is very small and

And thereafter, the equation then becomes:-

as Δφ is a function of Δd and Δd can be obtained from the following

calculation. The effective antenna height at antenna 1 is the height above the
sea level.
The effective antenna height at antenna 2 is the height above the sea
level.

where h1 and h2 are actual heights and H1 and H2 are the heights of hills.
In general, both antennas at fixed stations are high, so the reflection point
of the wave will be found toward the middle of the radio path. The path
difference d can be obtained as

Then, equation becomes

Therefore, we can set up five conditions:
Land-to-Mobile Transmission Over Water
There are always two equal-strength reflected waves, one from the water
and one from the proximity of the mobile unit, in addition to the direct wave.

Therefore, the reflected power of the two reflected waves can reach the
mobile unit without noticeable attenuation. The total received power at the
mobile unit would be obtained by summing three components.
Where Δφ1 and Δφ2 are the path-length difference between the direct
wave and two reflected waves, respectively. Because Δφ1 and Δφ2 are
very small usually for the land-to-mobile path, then

Follow the same approximation for the land-to-mobile propagation over

water.

Then,
In most practical cases, Δφ1 + Δφ2 < 1; then << 1 and the
equation reduces to
 FOLIAGE LOSS
Foliage loss is a very complicated topic that has many parameters and
variations. The sizes of leaves, branches, and trunks, the density and
distribution of leaves, branches, and trunks, and the height of the trees relative
to the antenna heights will all be considered.

A characteristic of
foliage environment.
This unique problem can become very complicated . For a system design, the
estimate of the signal reception due to foliage loss does not need any degree
of accuracy.

Furthermore, some trees, such as maple or oak, lose their leaves in winter,
while others, such as pine, never do.

However, a rough estimate should be sufficient for the purpose of system

design. In tropic zones, the sizes of tree leaves are so large and thick that the
signal can hardly penetrate.

Sometime the foliage loss can be treated as a wire-line loss, in decibels per
foot or decibels per meter, when the foliage is uniformly heavy and the path
lengths are short.

When the path length is long and the foliage is non uniform, then decibels
per octaves or decibels per decade is used.
 PROPAGATION IN NEAR-IN DISTANCE

We are using the suburban area as an example.

At the 1-mi intercept, the received level is −61.7 dBm based on the reference set
of parameters; that is, the antenna height is 30 m (100 ft).

If we increase the antenna height to 60 m (200 ft), a 6-dB gain is obtained.

From 60 to 120 m (20 to 400-ft), another 6 dB is obtained.

At the 120-m (400-ft) antenna height, the mobile received signal is the same as
that received at the free space.

The antenna pattern is not isotropic in the vertical plane.

A typical 6-dB omni-directional antenna beam width.
The reduction in signal reception can be found in the figure and is listed in
the table below.

At d = 100 m (328 ft) [mobile antenna height = 3 m (10 ft)], the incident
angles and elevation angles are 11.77◦ and 10.72◦, respectively.
Curves for near-in propagation.
Calculation of Near-Field Propagation

The range dF of near field can be obtained by letting φ in the equation below be π.

The signal received within the nearfield (d < dF ) uses the free space loss
formula, and the signal received outside the nearfield (d > dF ) can use the
mobile radio path loss formula, for the best approximation.
LONG-DISTANCE PROPAGATION

The advantage of a high cell site is that it covers the signal in a large area,
especially in a noise-limited system where usually different frequencies are
repeatedly used in different areas.

However, we have to be aware of the long-distance propagation phenomenon.

A noise-limited system gradually becomes an interference-limited system as the

traffic increases.

The interference is due to not only the existence of many co-channels and
adjacent channels in the system, but the long-distance propagation also affects
the interference.
Within an Area of 50-mi Radius

For a high site, the low-atmospheric phenomenon would cause the ground
wave path to propagate in a non-straight-line fashion.

The wave path can bend either upward or downward.

Then we may have the experience that at one spot the signal may be strong
at one time but weak at another.
At a Distance of 320 km (200 mi)
Tropospheric wave propagation prevails at 800 MHz for long-distance
propagation; sometimes the signal can reach 320 km (200 mi) away.

The wave is received 320 km away because of an abrupt change in the

effective dielectric constant of the troposphere.

The dielectric constant changes with temperature, which decreases with

height at a rate of about 6.5◦C/km and reaches −50◦C at the upper
boundary of the troposphere.

In tropospheric propagation, the wave may be divided by refraction and

reflection.

Tropospheric refraction: This refraction is a gradual bending of the

rays due to the changing effective dielectric constant of the atmosphere
through which the wave is passing.
Tropospheric reflection: This reflection will occur where there are
abrupt changes in the dielectric constant of the atmosphere. The
distance of propagation is much greater than the line-of-sight
propagation.

Moistness: Water content has much more effect than temperature on

the dielectric constant of the atmosphere and on the manner in which
the radio waves are affected.
The water vapor pressure decreases as the height increases.

Tropospheric wave propagation does cause interference and can only be

reduced by umbrella antenna beam patterns, a directional antenna
pattern, or a low-power low-antenna approach.
Thanks