BIO-103:

Biological Macromolecules

LECTURE: 7-9

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 Introduction/at a glance
Living
Systems

Carbon Organic Inorganic And the

containing! compounds compounds rest!

Assembling into Macromolecules

complex form

Carbohydrates

Lipids
Building Blocks of
living organism
Proteins

Nucleic Acids
 Terminologies/Definitions
• Macromolecule:
 Small molecules assemble in different orientation to
make large molecules, known as Macromolecules.
 Example: Glucose molecules assemble to make
cellulose (a carbohydrate) .

Cellulose
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 Terminologies/Definitions
• Monomers are small molecules or building blocks
which are joined together in a repeating fashion to
form more complex molecules, called polymers.
• Polymer is a natural or synthetic macromolecule
comprised of repeating units of smaller molecule
(monomers).
glucose glucose glucose glucose
cellulose
glucose
glucose glucose glucose glucose
Monomer
Polymer
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 Terminologies/Definitions
• Polymerization is the linking of monomers to form
polymers.
• Condensation: A reaction that occurs via the loss of a water
(H2O) molecule, usually from two different substances,
resulting in the formation of a large organic molecule.

Need the
Input of
energy

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 Terminologies/Definitions
• Hydrolysis, which is the reverse of condensation, breaks apart
large organic molecules into smaller ones.
• By breaking the bonds between monomers, hydrolysis
liberates energy

Liberation of
energy

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 Terminologies/Definitions
Carbohydrates
Glucose

Building Blocks/monomers
Macromolecule

Proteins
Amino acids

Lipids
s

Fatty acid and glycerol

Nucleic Acids
Nucleotide
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 CARBOHYDRATE
Carbohydrates store and provide energy. Some are
structural components.
Carbohydrates are 4 types:
Monosaccharides,
Disaccharides,
Oligosaccharides, and
Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides:
• Most common monosaccharide is glucose and it’s
chemical formula is C6H12O6 or (CH2O)6
• Other important monosaccharides include fructose
and galactose 8
Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides make a disaccharide.
Examples:
Sucrose (glucose + fructose) (Table Sugar)
Lactose (glucose + galactose) (Milk Sugar)
Maltose (glucose + glucose) (Barley/germinating seeds)

Oligosaccharide: A polymer containing a small number (typically 3

to 10) of monosaccharides. Most naturally occurring
oligosaccharides are found in plants. Raffinose, a trisaccharide
found in many plants, consists of galactose, glucose and fructose.
Polysaccharides: Long chains of monosaccharide units bound
together

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 Starch and Glycogen Cellulose

• Formed from glucose by • Formed from glucose

α(1-4) and α(1-6) by β(1-4) glycosidic
glycosidic bond. bond.

• Starch is energy storage • Cellulose is the

molecule in plants while structural component
glycogen is energy in plants
storage molecule in
animals. • Cellulose cannot be
• Starch and glycogen can digested by human.
be digested by human. Cattle can digest
cellulose

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 Functions of Carbohydrates
1. Provide energy (4 kcal/gram of carbohydrate)
2. Spare proteins for energy
3. Prevent ketosis and breakdown of fatty acids
4. Act as flavor and sweetener
5. Dietary fiber, which is a form of carbohydrate, is
essential for the elimination of waste materials
and toxins from the body

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 PROTEINS
• Proteins are the polymers of amino acids
• Different kinds of proteins are made from only
20 amino acids.

Amino acid (monomer)

Protein
(Amino acid polymer)

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Amino Acid: Building Block of Proteins
• Contains an amino group (+NH3) (basic)
• A carboxyl group (-COOH) (acidic)
• An “R group”
• All three groups are attached to a carbon atom
 Amino Acids
 Amino acids are divided into two groups-
Essential: Amino acids that cannot be synthesized in
our body and so must be supplied in the diet.
Non-essential: Amino acids that are synthesized in our
body and not needed to supply them in the diet.
 Amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds to
form protein.

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 Peptide Bond
The bond that forms between two amino acids is called a peptide bond

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 Levels of protein structure
Primary structure: The linear arrangement of amino acids
in a protein.

Secondary structure: Areas of folding or coiling within a

protein. e.g. α-helices and β-pleated sheets

Tertiary structure: Final three-dimensional structure of a

protein, which results from a large number of non-covalent
interactions between amino acids.

Quaternary structure: Non-covalent interactions that bind

multiple polypeptides into a single, larger protein. e.g.
Hemoglobin A (α2β2)
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Protein structure
Quaternary
structure

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 Functions of Protein
1. Protein's main function is to build, maintain, and repair body
tissues
2. Protein can also provide energy (4 kcal/gram of protein)

3. Many proteins act as enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions

4. Some proteins act as antibodies to prevent diseases.

5. Proteins are molecular instrument through which genetic
information is expressed.
6. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as
actin and myosin proteins in muscle.
7. Some proteins are important in cell signaling, cell adhesion, and
the cell cycle.

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 Lipids
• Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
• Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol.
• Structurally heterogeneous and Not soluble in water
• Types: 1. Triglycerides (Fats / Oils) 2. Phospholipids
3. Waxes 4. Steroids

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 Synthesis of triglycerides (TG)

Glycerol
Fatty acids TG
Can be saturated/unsaturated

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 Fats vs. Oils
Fats
• TG consists of saturated fatty acids is called fat
• Fats are solid at room temperature.
• Generally, fats are produced by animals.
• In animals, fats are stored in adipose cells.
• Fats are important as cushions for body organs and as
an insulating layer beneath the skin.

Oils
• TG consists of unsaturated fatty acids is called oil
• Oils are liquid at room temperature.
• Generally, oils are produced by plants.
• Common vegetable oils are soybean oil, sunflower oil,
and mustard oil.
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 Phospholipids
 A group of lipids that consist of two fatty acids, a glycerol
unit and a phosphate group which is esterified to an organic
molecule (X) such as choline, ethanolamine, inositol, etc.
 They are the major components of the cell membrane
 These molecules are simultaneously hydrophobic (at one
end, the fatty acid end) and hydrophilic (at the other end,
the phosphate end).

Polar head

Hydrophobic tail
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 A)
Phospholipid
structure

B) Lipid bilayer of cell membrane

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Waxes
Both plants and animals produce waxes.

The waxy coating on some plant leaves is an example of plant

waxes.

Beeswax is an example of a wax produced by animal.

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 Steroids
• All steroids possess a common ring structure.
• These ring structures vary by attached functional groups.
• Cholesterol is an example of steroids; cholesterol is a
membrane component.

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 Lipids and Health
• Most of the lipids found in food are in the form of
triglycerides (fats/oils), cholesterol, and phospholipid.
• Fats/oils are energy storage molecules, provide 9 kcal/gram.
• A minimum amount of dietary fat is necessary for
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (D, E, K) and carotenoids
(pro-vitamin A)
• Fats are classified into Saturated fats, Unsaturated fats
(monounsaturated & polyunsaturated), and Trans Fats.
Unsaturated fats are good for health.

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 Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are composed of long chains of
nucleotides
• They carry genetic information from generation
to generation
• They dictate amino acid sequence in proteins

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 Nucleic Acids
Two types:
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). It is double helix
b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA). It is single stranded

Nucleotides have 3 parts:

1. phosphate group
2. pentose sugar (a 5-carbon sugar)
3. nitrogenous bases:
adenine (A)
thymine (T), DNA only
uracil (U), RNA only
cytosine (C)
guanine (G)
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Cells Genes

Chromosomes DNA

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 DNA vs. RNA
DNA RNA
Structural Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
Name:
Function: Medium of long-term storage and Transfer the genetic code
transmission of genetic information needed for the creation of
protein.
Structure: Typically a double- stranded A single-stranded molecule and
molecule with a long chain of has a shorter chain of
nucleotides. nucleotides.
Sugar/Bases: Long polymer with a deoxyribose Shorter polymer with a ribose
sugar and phosphate backbone and sugar and phosphate backbone
four different bases: adenine, and four different bases:
guanine, cytosine, thymine. adenine, guanine, cytosine,
uracil.
Base Pairing: A-T (Adenine-Thymine), G-C A-U (Adenine-Uracil), G-C
(Guanine-Cytosine) (Guanine-Cytosine)

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Thank you.

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