MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY

AND METABOLISM

MIC 322
Nutrients and their
Functions
 INTRODUCTION
•Cells are essentially a well-organized assemblage of
macromolecules and water. Macromolecules are
produced by the polymerization of smaller units called
monomers.
• For cells to build all of the molecules required to
sustain life, they need certain substances, collectively
called nutrients.
•Nutrients are elements present in foods which are
needed to provide energy, maintain the body
structure, and help regulate chemical processes. It
may also be described as substances acquired from
the environment and used for growth and
metabolism.
 INTRODUCTION CONT..
• There are six classes of nutrients:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Minerals
Vitamins
Water

• Also, nutrients can be divided into categories as either:

• macronutrients or micronutrients
• organic or inorganic,
• whether or not they provide the body with energy (energy-
yielding).
 MACRONUTRIENTS
•Nutrients that are required in large
amounts are called macronutrients.
•There are 3 types of macronutrients:
Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids.
These could be converted metabolically
into cellular due to their chemical bonds.
•Water is a macronutrient, but unlike
other macronutrients, it does not
generate energy.
MACRONUTRIENTS
CARBOHYDRATES
•Carbohydrates are biological molecules made of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of
approximately one carbon atom (C) to one water
molecule (H2O). This composition gives
carbohydrates their name: carbon (carbo) plus
water (-hydrate).
•Generally, the general formula for carbohydrate
molecules is thus(CH2O)n, where n is the number of
carbon atoms present.
•This means that the C:H:O ratio is 1:2:1. For
instance, the formula for the simple sugars
galactose, fructose, and glucose all have the
formula C6H12O6 (the atoms of these three
molecules are arranged differently).
CARBOHYDRATES: CLASSIFICATION
Carbohydrate cont..
•Although, the length of carbohydrate
chains varies, the biologically
significant carbohydrates are:
Monosaccharides: A
monosaccharide is the monomer
unit of carbohydrates, but some
carbohydrates consist of only one
monomer, such as glucose,
fructose and galactose.
Carbohydrate cont..
 Disaccharides: Disaccharides are sugars
with two monomeric units, or a pair of
monosaccharides. These subunits can be
the same or different e.g
•maltose, which consists of two joined
glucose molecules
•Sucrose (table sugar) which consists of
one glucose molecule and one fructose
molecule.
•Bonds between monosaccharides are called
glycosidic bonds.
Carbohydrate: Polysaccharides
 Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides contain three or
more monosaccharides. The longer these chains
are, the more likely they are to have branches, so
that they don't simply contain monosaccharides.
Examples of polysaccharides include starch,
glycogen, cellulose and chitin.
•Starch tends to form in a helix, or spiral shape; this
is common in high-molecular-weight biomolecules
in general.
•Cellulose, in contrast, is linear, consisting of a long
chain of glucose monomers with hydrogen bonds
interspersed between carbon atoms at regular
intervals.
Carbohydrate: Polysaccharides
cont..
•Cellulose is a component of plant cells and gives
them their rigidity. Humans cannot digest
cellulose, and in the diet it is usually referred to as
"fiber."
•Chitin is another structural carbohydrate, found in
the outer bodies of arthropods like insects,
spiders and crabs. Chitin is a modified
carbohydrate, as it is "adulterated" with ample
nitrogen atoms.
•Glycogen is the body's storage form of
carbohydrate; deposits of glycogen are found in
both liver and muscle tissue.
Proteins
•Proteins are among the most abundant organic
molecules in living systems and are way more
diverse in structure and function than other classes
of macromolecules. A single cell can contain
thousands of proteins, each with a unique
function.
•Although their structures, like their functions, vary
greatly, the monomers of proteins are amino acids.
•Amino acids share a basic structure which include a
carboxylic acid (-COOH) group (C-terminal) and an
amino (-NH2) group (N-terminal). There are 20
amino acids, and these can be arranged in any
order.
Proteins cont…
• When amino acids join to each other, it is via a
hydrogen bond between the carboxylic acid group on
one of the amino acids and the amino group of the
other, with a molecule of water (H2O) released in the
process.
• A growing chain of amino acids is a polypeptide, and
when it is sufficiently long and assumes its three-
dimensional shape, it is a full-fledged protein. Unlike
carbohydrates, proteins never show branches.
• Largely, Proteins can serve as enzymes, which catalyze
biochemical reactions in the body; as hormones, such
as insulin and growth hormone; as structural
elements; and as cell-membrane components.
Protein: Structure
• Proteins have what is called primary, secondary, tertiary and
quarternary structure. Primary structure refers to the
sequence of amino acids in the protein, and it is genetically
determined.
• Secondary structure refers to bending or kinking in the chain,
usually in a repetitive fashion. Some conformations include
an alpha-helix and a beta-pleated sheet, and result from
weak hydrogen bonds between side chains of different
amino acids.
• Tertiary structure is the twisting and curling of the protein in
three-dimensional space and can involve disulfide bonds
(sulfur to sulfur) and hydrogen bonds, among others.
• Quaternary structure refers to more than one polypeptide
chain in the same macromolecule. This occurs in collagen,
which consists of three chains twisted and coiled together.
Lipids
•Lipids are the heterogenous
group of organic compounds that
are soluble in organic solvents,
but do not dissolve in water
(hydrophobic).
•This is because lipids are
electrically neutral and therefore
nonpolar, whereas water is a
polar molecule.
Lipids cont..
•Like carbohydrates, they are made of the
elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen,
but have a much lower proportion of
water.
•Unlike polysaccharides and proteins,
lipids are not polymers—they lack a
repeating monomeric unit.
Lipids cont..
•They are made from two molecules:
Glycerol and Fatty Acids and come in a variety of
forms such as triglycerides (fats and oils),
phospholipids, glycolipids, carotenoids, steroids and
waxes, which include beeswax and lanolin.
•Lipids provide energy upon metabolization and serve
as energy stores in living systems, provide insulation
to living organisms, are involved chiefly in cell
membrane formation and stability, form portions of
hormones, and are involved in cell signaling.
•Phospholipids, which have a hydrophobic lipid at
one end and a hydrophilic phosphate at the other,
are an important component of cell membranes.
MICRONUTRIENTS
•Micronutrients are those nutrients that are
needed in small amounts, yet are essential for
normal cell function and mainly function as co -
factors of enzymes. They do not produce
energy.
•Micronutrients are vitamins, minerals, and trace
elements critical to energy metabolism, cellular
growth and differentiation, organ function, and
immune function in human health.
•Vitamins are generally organic molecules while
minerals are inorganic substances usually in ion
form.
 MICROBIAL NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT
• Microbial cells are structurally complex. Nutrients are
necessary for microbial growth and play a vital role in
the proper cultivation of microorganisms in the
laboratory and for proper growth in their natural
environments.
• So microbial nutrition and microbial growth are
intimately correlated. The nutrients used to propagate
growth are organism-specific, based on their cellular and
metabolic processes.
• Most microorganisms will metabolize simple sugars such as
glucose. Others can metabolize more complex
carbohydrates, such as starch or cellulose, or glycogen found
in muscle foods. Some microorganisms can use fats as an
energy source.
MICROBIAL NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT cont..
•Amino acids serve as a source of nitrogen and
energy and are utilized by most microorganisms.
Some microorganisms are able to metabolize
peptides and more complex proteins. Other
sources of nitrogen include, for example, urea,
ammonia, creatinine, and methylamines.
•Like humans, therefore, they also require the two
categories of essential nutrients: macro-nutrients
(which are needed in large amounts) and micro-
nutrients (which are needed in trace or small
amounts).
 Macronutrients Essential for Microbes
•The chemical makeup of microbial cells is made up
of organic molecules, minimally carbon and
hydrogen, however oxygen is typically also present.
Both hydrogen and oxygen are part of many organic
compounds and water. The presence of oxygen
affects a few different aspects of microbial growth.
Different microbes respond differently to oxygen.
•In addition to requiring a source of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen to build these molecules, cells
need a source of three other elements at relatively
high levels: nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur.
Macronutrients Essential for Microbes cont..
• These six elements (C, H, O, N, P, S) are required for building
their macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acid). Specifically,
oNitrogen represents 12% of the total dry weight of a typical
cell and is needed for the formation of proteins, nucleic
acids, and a few other cell components. Most of the
nitrogen available in nature is either atmospheric nitrogen
(N2) or other inorganic form. Nitrogen, however, can be
converted into an organic form only by certain
microorganisms, called nitrogen-fixing organisms.
oPhosphorous is also a crucial component of nucleic acids
and required for the synthesis of phospholipids, and
nucleotides.
oSulphur is necessary for a few amino acids such as cysteine
and methionine, as well as several vitamins and coenzymes.
 Macronutrients Essential for Microbes cont…
• Also, required at slightly lower levels are cations:
oPotassium (K+), which is needed for enzymes
oMagnesium ions (Mg2+) are involved as cofactors of different
enzyme and are used to stabilize ribosomes and membranes
oIron (Fe2+) and calcium (Ca2+) which are important elements of
bacterial endospores as well as for enzymes. Iron is necessary
for the function of the cytochromes involved in electron-
transport reactions.
• All these elements are collectively referred to as the
macronutrients and constitute almost 95% of the dry weight of
microbial cell. They generally support cellular metabolism and
structural maintenance.
• Macronutrients can further be differentiated into major
macronutrients (C, H, O, N, P, S) which are traditionally added to
microbiological growth media at g/L amounts, and minor
macronutrients (K+, Mg2+ and Fe), traditionally added at mg/L
amounts.
Micronutrients required by Microbes
• Micro-nutrients help enzyme function and maintain protein
structure. The micronutrients or microelements or trace
elements required by microbes on a small level (~1000-fold
lower levels) include manganese , zinc, cobalt, copper,
molybdenum, nickel.
• These are not essential element for the growth of the microbes
but are involved in biological function in several ways and are
typically structural components of enzymes or cofactors. For
example:
oZinc is present at active site of some enzymes but is also
involved in association of regulatory and in the catalysis of
subunits in Escherichia coli aspirate carbonyl.
oManganese (Mn2) aids many enzymes catalysing the transfer
of phosphate group.
oMolybdenum (MO2) is required for nitrogen fixation
oCobalt (Co ) is a component of vitamin B .
Growth Factors
• Many microorganisms have the enzymatic pathways necessary to
synthesis a components required for their growth. On other
hands, many lack one or more essential enzymes and cannot
manufacture all indispensable constituents but must obtain them
or their precursors from the environment.
• Organic compound are required because they are essential cell
components. These organic compounds that cannot be
synthesised by organisms are called growth factors. There are
three major classes of growth factors:
oAmino acids (building blocks of protein)
oPurines and pyrimidines (building blocks of nucleic acid)
oVitamins (enzyme cofactors): Vitamins are small organic
molecules that usually make up all or part of enzyme cofactors
and only very small amounts sustained growth. Some
microorganisms require many vitamins for example
Enterococcus faecalis needs 8 different vitamins for growth.
Microbes Classification based on Nutritional Patterns

• The types of nutrients that are required include those that

supply energy, carbon and additional necessary materials.
Indeed, the specific nutritional requirements
of microbes are used to distinguish one microbe from
another for taxonomic purposes. These are:
1. Carbon metabolism i.e. their source of carbon for
building organic molecules within the cells:
• The most remarkable nutritional characteristics of
microorganisms is their extraordinary flexibility with respect to
carbon source.
• All living things are composed primarily of carbon, and all
macromolecules—including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and
nucleic acids—have carbon at their core. Carbon accounts for
about 50% of the composition of the cell.
Functions of some vitamins in the growth of
microorganisms
Vitamin Function(s)
Cyanocobalamin (B12) Carries methyl groups; synthesis of deoxyribose; molecular
rearrangements
Nicotinic acid (niacin) Precursor of NAD+ and NADP+; electron transfer in
oxidation-reduction reactions
Riboflavin (B2) Precursor of redox enzyme cofactors flavin mononucleotide (
FMN ) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), which are
essential for electron transport; dehydrogenations
Thiamine (B1) Aldehyde group transfer; decarboxylations
Haem and related Precursors of cytochromes
tetrapyrroles
Folic acid One-carbon transfers; methyl donation
Vitamin K group; quinones Electron transport; synthesis of sphingolipids
Biotin Carboxyl transfer reactions; carbon dioxide fixation, β-
decarboxylations; fatty acid biosynthesis
Pantothenic acid Precursor of coenzyme A; carries acyl groups
Carbon metabolism cont…
• Based on their source of carbon, bacteria can be
classified as:
a. Autotrophs : require only carbon dioxide as a carbon
source. An autotroph can synthesize organic molecules
from inorganic nutrients. Many autotrophic bacteria
are photosynthetic, and get their carbon from the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This process of
capturing inorganic carbon and converting it to organic
sugar molecules is known as carbon fixation.
b. Heterotrophs : require organic forms of carbon but
cannot synthesize organic molecules from inorganic
nutrients. They get fixed (usable) carbon from organic
compounds made by other organisms (by eating the
organisms or their by-products)
Nutritional Patterns cont..
2. Energy metabolism i.e. their source of
energy used for growth:
Microbes can use different sources of energy
to assemble macromolecules from smaller
molecules.
oOrganisms that use the light (mainly the sun) as a source of
energy are called phototrophs.
oOrganisms that use chemicals as a source of energy are
called chemotrophs. Chemotrophs that can use organic
compounds as energy sources are called chemo-
organotrophs. Those that can use inorganic compounds, like
sulphur or iron compounds, as energy sources are called
chemolithotrophs.
 Nutritional Patterns cont..
Thus, on the basis of carbon and energy sources for
growth, four major nutritional types of procaryotes (and
other organisms) are recognised: Photoautotrophs =
Organisms using light energy and inorganic compounds
for carbon. Photoheterotrophs = Organisms using light
energy and organic compounds for carbon.
Chemoautotrophs = Organisms using chemical energy
and inorganic compounds for carbon.
Chemoheterotrophs = Organisms using organic
compounds for both energy and carbon.
1. Photoautotrophs use light as an energy source and
carbon dioxide as their main carbon source. They
include photosynthetic bacteria (green sulfur bacteria,
purple sulfur bacteria, and cyanobacteria), algae, and
green plants. Photoautotrophs transform carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen gas
through photosynthesis .
Nutritional Patterns cont..
2. Photoheterotrophs use light as an energy source but cannot
convert carbon dioxide into energy. Instead they use organic
compounds as the main source of carbon. They include the green
non-sulfur bacteria and the purple non-sulfur bacteria.
3. Chemoautotrophs use inorganic compounds such as hydrogen
sulphide, sulphur, ammonia, nitrites, hydrogen gas, or iron as an
energy source and carbon dioxide as their main carbon source.
These organisms are also called as chemolithotrophs since they can
grow in an inorganic medium in the absence of light. Many
chemoautotrophs also live in extreme environments such as deep
sea vents (extremophiles).
4. Chemoheterotrophs are organisms that get their energy source and
carbon source from organic sources. They must consume organic
building blocks that they are unable to make themselves. Most get
their energy from organic molecules such as sugars. This nutritional
mode is very common among eukaryotes, including humans.