Biology of Cells

• Plant
cell wall is generally arranged

in 3 layers The three major layers
are:
1. Primary Cell Wall
2. The Middle Lamella
3. The Secondary Cell Wall
• Besides plants other organisms also
have cell wall (bacteria and fungi)
PLANT CELL: Vacuole
Section 7-2 Nickname: Reservoir
Please
water
me! • Stores water.
• This is what makes

lettuce crisp.
• When there is low

water, the plant wilts.
A ribosome is a complex molecular machine found inside the living cells that produce proteins
from amino acids during a process called protein synthesis or translation. The process of protein
synthesis is a primary function, which is performed by all living cells.
• Complex of RNA and protein and is, therefore,
known as a ribonucleoprotein.
• Composed of two subunits – smaller and larger.
• Smaller subunit is where the mRNA binds and is
decoded, and in the larger subunit, the amino
 Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes acids get added. Both subunits contain both
 Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes. protein and ribonucleic acid components.
Functions • The two subunits are joined to each other by
• Ribosomes are the site of protein
synthesis. interactions between the rRNAs in one subunit
• Proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm and proteins in the other subunit.
are utilized in the cytoplasm itself, the
• Ribosomes are located inside the cytosol found
proteins synthesized by bound
ribosomes are transported outside in the plant cell and animal cells.
the cell.
What is a Prokaryote?
A prokaryote is any organism – usually
single-celled – whose DNA is
suspended freely in the cytoplasm. The
word means ‘before the nucleus’.
Prokaryotes can be divided into two

groups:
• Bacteria
• Archaea.
Prokaryotes have simpler structure than

eukaryotes, lacking organelles such as
the nucleus, ER and Golgi.
How are Prokaryotes Different from Eukaryotes?
• The way their DNA is packaged
• No nucleus
• Not wrapped around histones
• The makeup of their cell wall
• Bacteria- peptidoglycan
• Archae- tough and made of other chemicals, distinct to them
• Their internal structures
• No complex, membrane-bound organelles
Prokaryotic Form and Function
Structures in bacterial cells
Structures common to Structures found in Structures found in
all bacterial cells most bacterial cells some bacterial cells
• Cell membrane • Cell wall • Flagella
• Cytoplasm • Pili
• Surface coating or
glycocalyx • Fimbriae
• Ribosomes
• Capsules
• One (or a few) • Slime layers
chromosomes
• Inclusions
• Actin cytoskeleton
• Endospores
Prokaryotic Cell
Bacterial Internal Structure
• Contents of the Cell Cytoplasm
• Gelatinous solution
• Site for many biochemical and synthetic activities
• 70%-80% water
• Also contains larger, discrete cell masses (chromatin body, ribosomes,
granules, and actin strands)
• Location of growth, metabolism, and replication
Bacterial Chromosome
• Single circular strand of DNA
• Aggregated in a dense area of the cell-
the nucleoid
Plasmids
• Nonessential, circles of DNA (5-100
genes)
• Present in cytoplasm but may become
incorporated into the chromosomal DNA
• Often confer protective traits such as
drug resistance or the production of
toxins and enzymes
• Pass on in conjugation
Inclusions
• Inclusions- also known as inclusion bodies
• Some bacteria lay down nutrients in these inclusions
during periods of nutrient abundance
• Serve as a storehouse when nutrients become depleted
• Some enclose condensed, energy-rich organic substances
• Some aquatic bacterial inclusions include gas vesicles to
provide buoyancy and flotation
Granules
• A type of inclusion body
• Contain crystals of inorganic compounds
• Are not enclosed by membranes
• Staining of some granules aids in identification.
Figure 4.19
The Glycocalyx
• a coating of repeating polysaccharide, protein, or both
• Protects the cell
• Can help the cell adhere to the environment
• Slime layer- a loose shield that protects some bacteria
from loss of water and nutrients
• Capsule- when the glycocalyx is bound more tightly to
the cell and is denser and thicker
Functions of the Glycocalyx
Many pathogenic bacteria have glycocalyces
• Protect the bacteria against phagocytes
• Important in formation of biofilms
• Streptococcus
• form a biofilm & eventually a buildup of plaque.
• The slime layer of Gram+ Streptococcus mutans allows it to accumulate on
tooth enamel (yuck mouth and one of the causes of cavities).
• Other bacteria in the mouth become trapped in the slime
Prokaryotes - Glycocalyx
2. Capsule
• Polysaccharides firmly attached to the cell

wall.
• Capsules adhere to solid surfaces and to

nutrients in the environment.
• Adhesive power of capsules is a major factor

in the initiation of some bacterial diseases.
• Capsule also protect bacteria from being

phagocytized by cells of the hosts immune
system.
Bacterial Endospores: An Extremely Resistant
Stage
• Dormant, tough, non-reproductive
structure produced by small number of
bacteria.
• Resistant to radiation, desiccation,

lysozyme, temperature, starvation, and
chemical disinfectants.
• Endospores are commonly found in

soil and water, where they may survive
for very long periods of time.
Prokaryotes
Cytoskeleton
 Cellular "scaffolding" or
"skeleton" within the
cytoplasm.
 Major advance in
prokaryotic cell biology in
the last decade has been
discovery of the prokaryotic
cytoskeleton.
 Up until recently, thought to

be a feature only of
eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes
Ribosomes
 Found within cytoplasm or attached

to plasma membrane.
 Made of protein & rRNA.
 Composed of two subunits.
 Cell may contain thousands
 Protein synthesis
The Cell Envelope: The Boundary layer of Bacteria
• Majority of bacteria have a cell envelope

• Lies outside of the cytoplasm
• Composed of two or three basic layers
• Cell membrane
• Cell wall
• In some bacteria, the outer membrane
Plasma Membrane
• Separates the cell from its

environment
• Phospholipid bilayer with

proteins embedded in two layers
of lipids (lipid bilayer)
• Functions
• Provides a site for functions
such as energy reactions,
nutrient processing, and
synthesis
• Regulates transport
(selectively permeable
membrane)
• Secretion
Differences in Cell Envelope Structure
• The differences between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
lie in the cell envelope
• Gram-positive
• Two layers
• Cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane
• Gram-negative
• Three layers
• Outer membrane, cell wall, and cytoplasmic membrane
Bacterial Cell Wall
 Peptidoglycan is a huge polymer of interlocking chains of
alternating monomers.
 Provides rigid support while freely permeable to solutes.
 Backbone of peptidoglycan molecule composed of two amino

sugar derivatives of glucose. The “glycan” part of
peptidoglycan:
- N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
- N-acetlymuramic acid (NAM)
 NAG / NAM strands are

connected by interlocking
peptide bridges.
The “peptid” part
of peptidoglycan.
Structure of the Cell Wall
• Provides shape and strong structural support
• Most are rigid because of peptidoglycan content
• Target of many antibiotics- disrupt the cell wall, and cells have
little protection from lysis
• Gram-positive cell (2 layers)
• A thick (20 to 80 nm) petidoglycan cell wall and membrane
• Gram-Negative Cell (3 layers)

• Outer membrane
• Single, thin (1 to 3 nm) sheet of peptidoglycan (Periplasmic space
surrounds the peptidoglycan)
• Cell membrane
Figure 4.12
Prokaryotes - Cell Wall
From the peptidoglycan inwards all bacteria are very similar. Going further
out, the bacterial world divides into two major classes (plus a couple of odd types).
These are:
Gram-positive Gram-negative
Nontypical Cell Walls
• Some aren’t characterized as either gram-positive or gram-negative
• For example, Mycobacterium and Nocardia- unique types of lipids
(acid-fast)
• Archaea – no peptidoglycan
• Mycoplasmas- lack cell wall entirely
External Structures
• Appendages: Cell extensions
• Common but not present on all species
• Can provide motility (flagella and axial filaments)
• Can be used for attachment and mating (pili and fimbriae)
Prokaryotes – Surface Appendages
fimbriae: Most Gram-negative

bacteria have these short, fine
appendages surrounding the cell.
Gram+ bacteria don’t have.
No role in motility. Help bacteria
adhere to solid surfaces. Major

factor in virulence.
(singular: fimbria)
pili:Tubes that are longer than

fimbriae, usually shorter than
flagella.
Arrangement, or Grouping
• Coccus
• Chain = Streptoccus
• Cluster = Staphylococcus
• Bacillus
• Chain = Streptobacillus
• Coccobacillus
• Vibrio = curved
• Spirillum
• Spirochete
Prokaryotic reproduction
• binary fission - this process involves copying the chromosome and
separating one cell into two
• asexual form of reproduction
• Transformation - the prokaryote takes in DNA found in its
environment that is shed by other prokaryotes.
• transduction - bacteriophages, the viruses that infect bacteria,
sometimes also move short pieces of chromosomal DNA from one
bacterium to another
• Conjugation - DNA is transferred from one prokaryote to another by
means of a pilus
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cell Compared

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• Plant

cell wall is generally arranged

• This is what makes

• When there is low

Prokaryotes can be divided into two

Prokaryotes have simpler structure than

• Polysaccharides firmly attached to the cell

• Capsules adhere to solid surfaces and to

• Adhesive power of capsules is a major factor

• Capsule also protect bacteria from being

• Resistant to radiation, desiccation,

• Endospores are commonly found in

 Up until recently, thought to

 Found within cytoplasm or attached

 Made of protein & rRNA.

 Composed of two subunits.

 Cell may contain thousands

• Majority of bacteria have a cell envelope

• Separates the cell from its

• Phospholipid bilayer with

 Provides rigid support while freely permeable to solutes.

 Backbone of peptidoglycan molecule composed of two amino

 NAG / NAM strands are

• Gram-Negative Cell (3 layers)

fimbriae: Most Gram-negative

No role in motility. Help bacteria

adhere to solid surfaces. Major

pili:Tubes that are longer than

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