Switching Techniques

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Switching Techniques

In large networks there might be multiple paths


linking sender and receiver. Information may be
switched as it travels through various
communication channels. There are three typical
switching techniques available for digital traffic.

• Circuit Switching
• Message Switching
• Packet Switching
Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a technique that directly connects the
sender and the receiver in an unbroken path.
• Telephone switching equipment, for example, establishes a
path that connects the caller's telephone to the receiver's
telephone by making a physical connection.
• With this type of switching technique, once a connection is
established, a dedicated path exists between both ends
until the connection is terminated.
• Routing decisions must be made when the circuit is first
established, but there are no decisions made after that
time.
Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching in a network operates almost the
same way as the telephone system works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before
communication can take place.
• The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for
a connection to the destination.
• Once the connection has been initiated and
completed to the destination device, the destination
device must acknowledge that it is ready and willing to
carry on a transfer.
Circuit switching
Advantages:
• The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.
Disadvantages:
• Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds,
more on long- distance or international calls.) during which
no data can be transmitted.
• More expensive than any other switching techniques,
because a dedicated path is required for each connection.
• Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the
channel is not used when the connected systems are not
using it.
Circuit switching
• This is what a typical traditional telephone
network look like.
• The PSTN networks are connected through
central offices, which act as telephone
exchanges, each serving certain geographical
area.
Circuit switching
• When a person A calls a person B then the
telephone network is trying different circuits
to find as available channel.
• A connection must be established before
conversation.
• Once the channel is decided, it guarantees the
full bandwidth and remained connected for
the duration of the communication session
until users terminate their connection.
• When u are making PSTN call, you are actually
renting the lines, that’s why international
telephone call or long distance phone call was
expensive.
Message Switching
• With message switching there is no need to establish a
dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
attached to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in
its entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its
entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the
next node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Message Switching
• A message-switching node is typically a
general-purpose computer. The device needs
sufficient secondary-storage capacity to store
the incoming messages, which could be long.
A time delay is introduced using this type of
scheme due to store- and-forward time, plus
the time required to find the next node in the
transmission path.
Message Switching
Advantages:
• Channel efficiency can be greater compared to circuit
switched systems, because more devices are sharing
the channel.
• Traffic congestion can be reduced, because messages
may be temporarily stored in route.
• Message priorities can be established due to store-
and-forward technique.
• Message broadcasting can be achieved with the use of
broadcast address appended in the message.
Message Switching
Disadvantages:
• Store-and-forward devices are expensive,
because they must have large disks to hold
potentially long messages.
Packet Switching
• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that
tries to combine the advantages of message
and circuit switching and to minimize the
disadvantages of both.
• There are two methods of packet switching:
Datagram and virtual circuit.
Packet Switching
• In both packet switching methods, a message is broken into small
parts, called packets.
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and destination
addresses.
• Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length, they can be
stored in main memory instead of disk, therefore access delay and
cost are minimized.
• Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are optimized.
• With current technology, packets are generally accepted onto the
network on a first-come, first-served basis. If the network
becomes overloaded, packets are delayed or discarded
(``dropped'').
Packet switching
• In packet switching, the analog signal from your phone is converted into a
digital data stream. That series of digital bits is then divided into relatively
tiny clusters of bits, called packets. Each packet has at its beginning the
digital address -- a long number -- to which it is being sent. The system
blasts out all those tiny packets, as fast as it can, and they travel across
the nation's digital backbone systems to their destination: the telephone,
or rather the telephone system, of the person you're calling.
• • They do not necessarily travel together; they do not travel sequentially.
They don't even all travel via the same route. But eventually they arrive at
the right point -- that digital address added to the front of each string of
digital data -- and at their destination are reassembled into the correct
order, then converted to analog form, so your friend can understand what
you're saying.
Packet switching
• Packet switching networks are
connected through many
routers, each router serving
different segment of network.

• Data is broken into packets


before it is transported.
Packet switching
• In packet switching, packets
can travel any path on the
network to their destination,
because each packet contains
an IP address and sequence
information.
• Therefore, they do not need
to follow each other, they
can travel any network path
and they can find the fast
channel available at any
instant
Packet switching
• They do not need to arrive at
sequence because they can
reassemble together at the
destination.
• The Internet is base on packet
switching protocol TCP/IP
Packet Switching: Datagram
• Datagram packet switching is similar to message switching in that
each packet is a self-contained unit with complete addressing
information attached.
• This fact allows packets to take a variety of possible paths through
the network.
• So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not
follow the same route, and they may arrive out of sequence at the
exit point node (or the destination).
• Reordering is done at the destination point based on the sequence
number of the packets.
• It is possible for a packet to be destroyed if one of the nodes on its
way is crashed momentarily. Thus all its queued packets may be lost.
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
• In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established before
any data packets are sent.
• A logical connection is established when
 a sender send a "call request packet" to the receiver and
 the receiver send back an acknowledge packet "call accepted packet" to
the sender if the receiver agrees on conversational parameters.
• The conversational parameters can be maximum packet sizes, path to be
taken, and other variables necessary to establish and maintain the
conversation.
• Virtual circuits imply acknowledgements, flow control, and error control,
so virtual circuits are reliable.
• That is, they have the capability to inform upper-protocol layers if a
transmission problem occurs.
Packet Switching:Virtual Circuit
• In virtual circuit, the route between stations does not
mean that this is a dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
• A packet is still buffered at each node and queued for
output over a line.
• The difference between virtual circuit and datagram
approaches:
 With virtual circuit, the node does not need to make a
routing decision for each packet.
 It is made only once for all packets using that virtual
circuit.
Packet Switching: Virtual Circuit
VC's offer guarantees that”
• The packets sent arrive in the order sent
• With no duplicates or omissions
• With no errors (with high probability)
regardless of how they are implemented
internally.
Advantages of packet switching
Advantages:
• Packet switching is cost effective, because switching devices do
not need massive amount of secondary storage.
• Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics, because
there are no long messages in the queue (maximum packet size is
fixed).
• Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as, busy or
disabled links.
• The advantage of packet switching is that many network users can
share the same channel at the same time. Packet switching can
maximize link efficiency by making optimal use of link bandwidth.
Disadvantages of packet switching
Disadvantages:
• Protocols for packet switching are typically more
complex.
• It can add some initial costs in implementation.
• If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
• Another disadvantage is that packet-switched
systems still can’t deliver the same quality as
dedicated circuits in applications requiring very little
delay - like voice conversations or moving images.
We can use packet switching in two way, first is Datagram Switching and second is Virtual circuit

Datagram Switching Virtual circuit:


• Connection Oriented: all router or
• Connection less: (no reservation, switches are reserved (buffer, CPU,
resources on demand, store and memory).
forward, ) • Reservation
• No reservation. • Same Order : (use globle packet,
• Out of order packet: (we use all which decide the path for
connected path to send data) connection).
• High overhead: (due to lots • Less overhead: (need to attach
headers on packets, need to tell header with first packet, rest packet
lots of info) (use separate links) know where to go)
• Packet loss (up): (cuz All packets • Packet loss (down) (use dedicated
us separate path) path, already decided path)
• Used in Internet. • Cost : we need to reserve all the
• Cost (down): no reservation, if its recourses every time which decrease
stops transmission then can give the efficiency and up the cost
resources to other transmission
• Delay (up)
• Efficiency (up)
Multiple division techniques
• It is multiple access method in which the
available bandwidth of a link is shared in
time(TDMA), frequency (FDMA) or
code(CDMA).
Frequency Division Multiple Access FDMA

• Suppose we have channels having different frequencies


• Divide the total bandwidth in different frequency bands
Frequency
• If we have 4 stations then how we will allocate
the frequency to station

Frequency Band 4 Station 4

Frequency Band 3 Station 3

Frequency Band 2 Station 2

Frequency Band 1 Station 1


Time
Time Division Multiple Access
TDMA
• This is method the stations share the bandwidth of channel in Time.
• Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data
Frequency • Here we are not dividing the frequency, we
are dividing the time so one channel will
use full bandwidth for some specific time

Fully allocated BW to each station • In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one


channel that is time shared between
different stations

Time
Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4
Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA
• In this method, one channel carries all transmission
simultaneously.
• CDMA means data communication with different codes
• There are two properties for the data transmission through
coding

1. If different codes are multiply with each other , then the ans
will be “0”
2. If codes are multiply by its self, then ans must be “4”, 4 is
number of stations (it can be 2 ,3 4, 5 and so on)
Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA
• Station 1 generates code = code 1 or C1
• Station 2 generates code = code 2 or C2
• Station 3 generates code = code 3 or C3
• Station 4 generates code = code 4 or C4
• So according to properties

• If we multiply 2 different codes then ans will be 0 (C1*C2 = 0)


• If we multiply code by itself then ans will be 4 (or how many
stations)
Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA
Now we will see how data will be transfer and how one station receive data from one
station to another station. Here we will take 4 stations

S1== d1==c1>>>>>> c1*d1 (data transfer)

S2== d2==c2 >>>>>> c2*d2 (data transfer)

S3== d3==c3 >>>>>> c3*d3 (data transfer)

S4== d4==c4 >>>>>> c4*d4 (data transfer)


After this, data will transfer together through one channel

(c1*d1) + (c2*d2) + (c3*d3) + (c4*d4)


• These 4 station are connected with each other, so these stations
using this same channel

• So now, Station 2 need to know what data Station 1 sends to Station


2. S1 S2
Station 2 multiply the full transmitted code with the
Code of station 1 which is c1

[(c1*d1) + (c2*d2) + (c3*d3) + (c4*d4)]* C1


S3 S4
(c1*c1*d1) + (c1*c2*d2) + (c1*c3*d3) + (c1*c4*d4)
Here we apply the properties of code which are, different code multiplication = 0 and
Code with itself multiplication = 4 (or number of station )

(4*d1) + 0 + 0 + 0
(4*d1) /4 So now station 2 divides this with number
of station which are 4
d1
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM

• FDMA , allows multiple users to share one single link

• Now we will talk about Orthogonal Frequency


Division Multiplexing (OFDM), a variation of FDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM
• OFDM is very popular multiplexing method
used for many of the latest wireless and
telecommunication standards such as, Wifi,
4G, and 5G cellular phone technologies,
WiMAX, Satellite and many more.
What is OFDM and why batter than FDM

• First we will see the FDM how it transmit the


different signals without overlapping sub-
channels.
Guard Band
• A guard band is inserted between adjacent sub channels
so that different channels travel separately and
simultaneously without interfering with each other.
• In OFDM those sub-channels are closely spaced.
• There is no guard band between them but actually they are
overlapped.
• It can be say that with same available bandwidth OFDM
would allow more data transmission than FDM
Question

• How does OFDM prevent interference


while multiple sub-channels or
frequencies overlap with each other
• Suppose we have three different signals as
shown in figure below
• To send these different signals over the shared
bandwidth OFDM would combine them
closely together in a way that they are
orthogonal to each other
Question: What is the meaning of the word
orthogonal?
Answer: The word orthogonal means that two or
multiple objects act independently

In OFDM case, any neighbor signals in OFDM


operates without dependence on, interference
with one another
How OFDM signals operate without
interference with each other
• Considering sky blue signal, when this reaches its peak mean
at highest point then its two neighbor signals pink and
yellow are at 0 point at null.
• This is same when we consider Pink or Yellow signal

Highest Point

0 or null point
Orthogonal Means

• Therefore, orthogonal means signals are


multiplex in a way that the peak of one signal
occurs at null of the other neighbor signals.
• At the receiving end, demultiplexer would
separate them based on this orthogonal
feature
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDM
• OFDM would better utilize the available
bandwidth, thus offering higher data
transmission rate than FDM
Space Division Multiple Access
SDMA
• SDMA is used for allocating a separate space to users in
wireless networks.
• A typical application involves assigning a base station to
a mobile phone user.
• A mobile user may receive several base station with
different quality.
• A MAC algorithm will decide which base station is best
for mobile ,taking into account with FDM, TDM or CDM
• SDMA is never used in isolated but always in
combination with one or more technique

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