Elizabeth Nsubuga

Quantitative Methods
Midterm Period Handout
1st Semester 2022-2023
Life is not about the destination; it is about the journey…
Enjoy where God has you right now knowing that he will
get you where you are supposed to be… ~Joel Osteen

1
 Standard Grading Online Class

Quizzes 30%
Seat Works 30%
Major Examination 40%
FINAL GRADE = (Prelim Term Grade +
Midterm Grade + Final Grade)/3

2
 Midterm Period Topics

Key Issues in Quantitative Research

Classification Quantitative Research
Designs
Quantitative Scales of Measurement
Classification of Quantitative Data

3
 Learning Objective

Describe the process of quantitative

research.
Define Measurements of quality of
research.
 Assessment 1M

Initial Assessment (Group Activity)

SWK 1P 30 points
 Topic 1: Key Issues in Quantitative Research

Major Topics to be included:

The Process of Research

 Identify the Research Problem
 Review the Literature
 Specify a Research Purpose
 Collect Data
 Analyze and Interpret Data
 Report and Evaluate Research
Measurements of quality of research
 Validity
 Reliability
 Falsifiability
 Generalizability
 Reproducibility
 The Process of Research

Identify the Research Problem

Specify a problem
Justify a problem
Suggest a need to study the problem for audiences
Review the Literature
Locate resources (Books, Journals, Electronic resources)
Select resources
– Determine the relevant resources for the topic
– Organize the resources by developing a “Literature
Map”
Summarize the resources in a literature review
 The Process of Research

 Specify a Research Purpose

 Identify the purpose statement
 The major intent of the study
 The participants in the study
 The site of the study
 Narrow the purpose statement
 Quantitative: Write research questions and/or
hypothesis
 Qualitative: Identify a central phenomenon and
write sub-questions
 The Process of Research

Collect Data
Determine the data-collection method
Select the individuals to study
Design or select data-collection
instruments and outline data-collection
procedures
Obtain permissions
Gather data
 The Process of Research

Analyze and Interpret Data

Take the data apart to look at individual responses
Represent the data in tables, figures, and pictures
Explain conclusions from the data that address the
research questions
Report and Evaluate Research
Ethical Considerations in Research
Respect the rights of the participants
Honor the requests and restrictions of the research site
Report the research fully and honestly
 Measurements of quality in Quantitative Research

In a research, consideration must be given not only to the results

of the study but also the rigor of the research.
Rigor refers to the extent to which the researchers worked to
enhance the quality of the studies.
In quantitative research, if the results of the study are to be
considered useful and trustworthy, there are 2 key measurements
that must be addressed to ensure a quality research study:
Validity
Reliability
Other measurements of quality are:
Falsifiability
Generalizability
Reproducibility
 Validity

Validity is defined as the extent to which a concept is

accurately measured in a quantitative study.
It refers to the strength of the conclusions that are drawn
from the results.
 In other words, how accurate are the results?
 Do the results measure what was intended to be
measured?
“For example, a survey designed to measure number of
students with an overall average score of 90 but which
actually measures number of students with full
scholarship would not be considered valid”
 Reliability

Reliability is defined as the consistency of the measurements.

To what level will the instrument produce the same results under the same
conditions every time it is used?
Reliability adds to the trustworthiness of the results because it is a testament
to the methodology if the results are reproducible.
The reliability is often examined by using a test and retest method where
the measurement are taken twice at two different times.
The reliability is critical for being able to reproduce the results, however,
the validity must be confirmed first to ensure that the measurements are
accurate.
Consistent measurements will only be useful if they are accurate and valid.
A simple example of validity and reliability is an alarm clock that rings at
7:00 each morning, but is set for 6:30. It is very reliable (it consistently
rings the same time each day), but is not valid (it is not ringing at the
desired time)”
 Falsifiability

The term falsifiability means that for any

hypothesis to have credibility, it must be possible
to test whether that hypothesis may be incorrect.
A researcher should test his/her own hypothesis
to prove or disprove it before releasing results to
prevent another researcher from proving it wrong.
If a theory or hypothesis cannot be tested in such
a way that may disprove it, it will likely not be
considered scientific or valuable to those in the
field.
 Measurements of quality in Quantitative Research

Generalizability
This term refers to whether or not the research findings
and conclusions that result from the study are generalizable
to the larger population or other similar situations.
The ability to generalize results allows researchers to
interpret and apply findings in a broader context, making
the finding relevant and meaningful.
Replication
Replication is the reproducibility of the study.
Will the methodology produce the same results when used
by different researchers studying similar subjects?
Replication is important because it ensures the validity
and reliability of the results and allows the results to be
generalized.
 Topic 2: Classification of Quantitative
Research Designs
Learning Objectives
Define each one of the three
categories of quantitative research.
Provide an example of each method.
Describe how to identify the
appropriate method for a particular
research problem.
 Classification of Quantitative
Research Designs

Major Topics to be included

Three categories of Quantitative Research Design
Descriptive non experimental
Quasi-experimental
Experimental
A Video: Classification of
Quantitative Research Design
This Video presents the three
Classification of Quantitative
Research Design: Descriptive-non
experimental, Quasi-experimental
and Experimental
 Classification of Quantitative Research Designs
In Quantitative Research, Designs can be classified in three
categories:
Descriptive non-experimental
Quasi-experimental
Experimental
To identify which design your study is using, find answers to the
following question:
Did the researcher do something to the participants?
Intervention, sometimes referred to as manipulation, is what
a researcher gives to participants of a study to see what it
would do.
Intervention can be in the form of:
Education
Treatment
Support
 Experimental research designs

If the researcher did something to the participants

(Intervened), then the researcher is using Quasi-
experimental or Experimental research design.
If there is a control group then the research is
experimental.
A control group is a group of people that enter the study
but do not receive the same intervention under the study
Instead, they are used for the purpose of comparison in
the study.
If there is no control group, then the study is described
as Quasi-experimental
 Descriptive nonexperimental

If the researcher did not do anything to the

participants (no Intervention), then the
researcher is using a Descriptive no-
experimental research design.
If the intervention is missing, the study is
not an experiment.
It is observational in nature and it is
therefore classified as Descriptive no-
experimental
 Topic 3: Quantitative Scales of Measurement

Learning Objectives
List and describe the four types of scales of
measurement used in quantitative research.
Provide examples of uses of the four scales
of measurement.
Determine the appropriate measurement
scale for a research problem.
 Major Topics to be included

The four basic scales of measurement:

Nominal scale of measurement
Ordinal scale of measurement
Interval scale of measurement
Ratio Scale of measurement
 Quantitative Scales of Measurement

Quantitative research requires that

measurements be both accurate and reliable.
Researchers commonly assign numbers or
values to the attributes of people, objects,
events, perceptions, or concepts.
This process is referred to as measurement.
The variables that are measured are
commonly classified as being measured on
a: nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio scale.
 Nominal scale of measurement:
The nominal scales is essentially a type of coding that simply puts people, events,
perceptions, objects or attributes into categories based on a common trait or
characteristic.
The coding can be accomplished by using numbers, letters, colors, labels or any
symbol that can distinguish between the groups.
The nominal scale is the lowest form of a measurement because it is used simply to
categorize for identification purpose only and not to capture additional information.
Other features of a nominal scale are that each participant or object measured is
placed exclusively into one category and there is no ranking or meaningful order
among the categories.
Some examples include distinguishing between smokers and nonsmokers, males and
females, types of religious affiliations, and so on.
In a study related to smoking, smokers may be assigned a value of 1 and nonsmokers
may be assigned a value of 2.
The assignment of the number is purely arbitrary and at the researcher’s discretion.
 Ordinal scale of measurement:

The ordinal scale differs from the nominal scale in that it classifies
data into some specified order or rank for example ranking the data
from lowest to highest.
An ordinal scale typically uses non-numerical categories such as
low, medium and high to demonstrate the relationships between the
data points.
The disadvantage of the ordinal scale is that we cannot tell how
much less or how much more one rank has over the other because it
does not provide information regarding the magnitude of the
difference between the data points or rankings.
An example of the use of an ordinal scale would be ranking of
honor students in a class and ranking candidates in a beauty contest.
 Interval scale of measurement

An interval scale is one in which the actual distances, or intervals

between the categories or points on the scale can be compared.
The distance between the numbers or units on the scale are equal
across the scale.
An example would be a temperature scale, such as the Fahrenheit
scale.
The distance between 20 degrees and 40 degrees is the same as
between 60 degrees and 80 degrees.
A distinguishing feature of interval scales is that there is no
absolute zero point because the key is simply the consistent
distance or interval between categories or data points.
 Ratio scale of measurement
The ratio scale contains the most information about the values in a study.
It contains all of the information of the other three categories because it
categorizes the data, places the data along a continuum so that researchers can
examine categories or data points in relation to each other.
However, the difference is that the Ratio level always starts from zero
The lowest data point collected serves as a meaningful absolute zero point
which allows for interpretation of ratio comparisons.
Time is one example of the use of a ratio measurement scale in a study because
it is divided into equal intervals and a ratio comparison can be made.
For example, 20 minutes is twice as long as 10 minutes.
In addition the Ratio level has always the presence of units of measurement
Hence we can say that one object is so many times larger or smaller than the
other
Ex: if car A starts from Luneta and travels 90 km in one hour and car B travel
120km in one hour, we can conclude that car B is 1 1/3 times faster than car
A
 Topic 4: Classification of Quantitative Data

Learning Objectives
Differentiate quantitative data
from qualitative data
Explain the difference between
discrete and continuous data.
List examples of discrete and
continuous data.
 Major Topics to be include

Qualitative Data
Quantitative Data
 Discreet Data
 Continuous Data
 A Video presenting Classification of
Quantitative Data

This video discusses the difference

between qualitative and quantitative
research in terms of data and
presents the two types of
quantitative data
 Qualitative Data

Data can be classified as:

 Qualitative or
Quantitative
Qualitative data are data that can be placed
into categories according to their
characteristics or attributes
Gender, civil status and nationality are
qualitative data
Qualitative data cannot be added, subtracted,
multiplied or divided
 Quantitative Data

Quantitative data is data that can be

counted or expressed numerically.
Age, height, weight and test scores are
examples of Quantitative data
There are two main types of quantitative
data:
Discrete Data
Continuous Data
 Quantitative Data
Discrete data - assumes values that can be counted.
These Values are represented by Counting Numbers only (ex:
number of days in a week or number of children in a family)
Discrete data may also be defined as data where there is space
between values on a number line, thus values must be a whole
number.
For example, if a study examined the number of vehicles owned by
households in the Philippines, the data collected would be whole
numbers.
Continuous data is defined as one which can assume all values
between any two specific values or intervals.
Continuous data is where the values fall on a continuum and it is
possible to have fractions or decimals.
The Values are usually obtained through measurement
Examples may include measurements of height, age, or distance.
 References
Internet
Roberta Heale, Alison Twycross Research made simple Validity
and reliability in quantitative studies
Abraham S. Fischler School of Education NOVA
SOUTHERNEASTERN University Quantitative Research
Methods
URL: http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide: Last Updated: Jan 3,
2018 10:33
Subjects: General Reference & Research Help
Tags: citation, writing support © University of Southern California
Center for Innovation and Teaching
https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/research_ready/
quantresearch/ethics
 References

Internet
Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Quantitative
Methods
Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research. 12th ed. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010
Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with
SPSS. 2nd edition. London: SAGE Publications, 2010
Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis:
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods. 8th ed. Boston,
MA: Longman, 2011
McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and
Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches.
2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008
 References

Internet
Quantitative Research Methods. Writing@CSU. Colorado State
University; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods.
Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.
Black, Thomas R. Doing Quantitative Research in the Social
Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design,
Measurement and Statistics. London: Sage, 1999;
Gay,L. R. and Peter Airasain. Educational Research: Competencies
for Analysis and Applications. 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merril Prentice Hall, 200
Hector, Anestine. An Overview of Quantitative Research in
Composition and TESOL. Department of English, Indiana
University of Pennsylvania
 References

Internet
Hopkins, Will G. “Quantitative Research Design.” Sportscience 4,
1 (2000); "A Strategy for Writing Up Research Results. The
Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific
Paper." Department of Biology. Bates College
Nenty, H. Johnson. "Writing a Quantitative Research Thesis."
International Journal of Educational Science 1 (2009): 19-32;
Ouyang, Ronghua (John). Basic Inquiry of Quantitative Research.
Kennesaw State University.
Books
2014 John Duignan Quantitative Methods for Business Research
using Microsoft Excel
2012 Zorilla et al Basic Statistics: Basic Concepts and Application
End of Midterm Period