Qualitative Research

Dr.Aftab Hussain
Week 2 September 23,2022
MS.III Ripahah Int.l University,Islamabad
Objectives

By the end of this session you will be able to:

 Identify the characteristics of qualitative data
 Formulate qualitative research questions
 Develop a robust qualitative design, including an
appropriate sampling strategy
 Select and apply the criteria that make for a
rigorous qualitative research study
1. Which of the following is characteristic of
qualitative research?
 a.  Generalization to the population
 b.  Random sampling
 c.  Unique case orientation
 d.  Standardized tests and measures
2. Phenomenology has its disciplinary origins in:
 a.  Philosophy
 b.  Anthropology
 c.  Sociology
 d.  Many disciplines
3. Which of the following is a characteristic of
qualitative research?
 a. Design flexibility
b. Inductive analysis
c. Context sensitivity
d. All of the above
4. In data analysis of the grounded theory approach, the step
which focuses on the main idea, developing the story line, and
finalizing the theory is called ________.
 a. Open coding

 b. Axial coding

 c. Selective coding

 d. Theoretical saturation
 5. You want to study a Native American group in New Mexico
for a six month period to learn all you can about them so you
can write a book about that particular tribe. You want the book
to be accurate and authentic as well as informative and
inspiring. What type of research will you likely be conducting
when you get to New Mexico?
 a. Ethnography
 b. Phenomenology
 c. Grounded theory
 d. Collective case study
6. Which of the following does not apply to qualitative
research?

 a. Data are often words and pictures

 b. Uses the inductive scientific method

 c. Ends with a statistical report

 d. Involves direct and personal contact with participants

7. Which of the following is usually not a characteristic of

qualitative research?
  a.  Design flexibility

  b.  Dynamic systems

  c.  Naturalistic inquiry

  d.  Deductive design
8. The type of qualitative research that describes
the culture of a group of people is called ____.
 a. Phenomenology
 b. Grounded theory

 c. Ethnography

 d. Case study

9. Which major characteristic of qualitative research refers to

studying real world situations as they unfold naturally?
 a.  Holistic perspective

 b.  Naturalistic inquiry

 c.  Dynamic systems

 d.  Inductive analysis
10.The grounded theory approach was
developed by
 a.Glaser and Strauss
 b.Denzin
 c.Heidegger
 d.Husserl
Epistemology

 In simple terms, is the theory of knowledge and

deals with how knowledge is gathered and
from which sources. In research terms your view
of the world and of knowledge strongly influences
your interpretation of data and therefore your
philosophical standpoint should be made clear
from the beginning.
Qualitative research design
 Research design – the overall strategy that you choose to
integrate the different components of the study in a coherent
and logical way, thereby ensuring you will effectively address
the research problems; it constitutes for the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and data analysis, etc.
 Study design – the specifics of the data collection
 Six focus groups of 8 – 10 people using verbal questions as

well as images of 3 main party leaders.

 Interview 15 people, electronically recorded.
Qualitative research structure

 Ask question  research background literature 

select subjects  collect data
 Interpret data do conceptual work  
collect more data   refine research question
 Write up results and findings
Qualitative research design

 Qualitative research is inductive, not deductive.

 Data let, not only theory led.
 Theories are formulated in the field, not only in
the library
 The aim is not to reduce complex systems into
observable variable but take complexity of
context into account.
Qualitative research design

 In qualitative research we don’t have confidence

intervals or other statistical methods for
determining how large or small our sample should
be
 How to decide?
 Theoretical saturation – ‘Saturation means that no
additional data are being found whereby the
sociologist can develop properties of the
category,’ (G & S 1967, p. 61)
Qualitative research design
 Qualitative inquiry is primarily naturalistic, interpretive, and
 inductive.
 By studying naturally occurring phenomena, qualitative
researchers attempt to interpret or make sense of the meaning
people attach to their experiences or underlying a particular
phenomenon.
 Qualitative researchers work inductively from individual cases
(the data) and not from a preexisting framework or a particular
theory.
 We qualitative researchers must use creativity, sensitivity, and
flexibility as we try to make sense of life as it unfolds.
Inductive vs. Deductive Research Approach

 The main difference between inductive and deductive

reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims at developing a
theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing
theory.

 Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad

generalizations, and deductive reasoning the other way
around.
 Both approaches are used in various types of research, and it’s
not uncommon to combine them in one large study.
Volumes of data for inductive and deductive
approaches
Why qualitative? Some criticisms of
quantitative methods
 It can involve little or no contact with people or
field settings
 Statistical correlations may be based upon
‘variables’ that are arbitrarily defined by the
researchers themselves
 After-the-fact analysis about the meaning of
correlations may involve some very common-
sense reasoning or even speculation that science
claims to avoid
 The pursuit of ‘measurable’ phenomena mean
that difficult concepts such as ‘criminality’ or
‘intelligence’ are treated unproblematically
Characteristics of qualitative research
 It is conducted through intense
contact within a ‘field’ or real life
setting.
 The researcher’s role is to gain a
‘holistic’ or integrated overview of
the study, including the perceptions
of participants.
 Themes that emerge from the data
are often reviewed with informants
for verification.
 The main focus of research is to
understand the ways in which people
act and account for their actions.
Qualitative strategies of inquiry (1)
 Case study: studies a specific ‘bounded system’, e.g. a person or
institution
 Ethnography: explores the nature of a specific social phenomenon, often
using a small number of cases
 Ethnomethodology: investigates people’s everyday procedures for
creating, and managing a sense of objective reality
 Phenomenology: explores how people’s taken for granted world is
experienced and how structures of consciousness apprehend the world
 Grounded theory: uses the interplay between analysis and data collection
to produce theory
Qualitative strategies of inquiry (2)
 Participatory action research: implies an effort on the part of people to
understand the role of knowledge as a significant instrument of power and
control
 Narrative analysis: the analysis of a chronologically told story, exploring
how various elements are sequenced.
 Cultural studies: the study of a complex web of social customs, values
and expectations that affect our ways of working
 Gender studies: explores the process of constructing and differentiating
gender and particularly gender inequalities
Approaches to qualitative inquiry
Plan data analysis process

Deciding on a sampling strategy

Determine the types of data to be collected (words

(interviews, diaries, field notes), photos, videos, etc)

Determine the unit of analysis

Formulate research questions

Determine the focus of the inquiry

 Sampling strategies (examples)
Sampling strategy Description

Intensity sampling Information-rich cases

Typical case sampling Focus on what is ‘normal’ or

‘average’ to highlight the whole
population
Snowball sampling First group of participants nominates
other individuals

Theory based sampling Cases are selected on the basis that

they represent a theoretical
construct
Role of the researcher
 Maintain physical (emotional?)
proximity to research participants
 Demonstrate ‘theoretical
sensitivity’
 Be insightful
 Perceive situations holistically
 Be sensitive to personal bias
(reflexivity)
The role of the literature
Role of the literature from a highly inductive approach –
but you could also start with the literature

Start?
The literature
Data  theoretical Data
Analysis
gathering gathering
 empirical
 methodological
Collecting qualitative data: Interviewing

 Structured, semi-
structured or
conversational
 Useful for follow-up,
probing questions
 If unstructured, can
generate large
amounts of data
Collecting qualitative data: observation

 Data collected in
‘natural’ field settings
 Can be overt or covert
 Can involve
participation by the
researcher in the
setting/event or non-
participation
Collecting qualitative data: using visual
sources
 Can include photographs,  Digital Devices
film, video etc.
 Good for documenting
peoples’ lifestyles, living
and working conditions
 But the focus of the camera
can be selective
 Subjects’ behaviour may
change in front of the
camera
Collecting qualitative data: unobtrusive
measures
 Includes documents
(reports, business
plans, contracts etc),
websites, and other
‘non-reactive’ data
 Selective attrition of
documents means
there may be bias in
the ones that survive
Collecting qualitative data: Research diaries

The kinds of issues noted in a research

diary could include:
 The processes involved in
approaching the field and making
contact
 Experiences (positive and negative)
in getting access to respondents and
in using data gathering instruments
 Details of literature sources read
(and ordered)
 Reflections on the interpretation and
presentation of results, including
important changes in direction
Ethical checklist in qualitative
research
 Have I honoured my commitments about
confidentiality and privacy?
 Have I acted in the spirit of informed consent?
 Have I used my research effectively and morally?
 Have I generalized appropriately?
 Do I have a responsibility to anticipate how others
might use my research and explanations?
Generating validity
Type of technique Technique

Design considerations Developing a self-conscious research design

Sampling decisions (i.e. sampling adequacy)
Employing triangulation
Giving voice

Data generating Demonstrating prolonged engagement in the

field
Demonstrating persistent observation
Providing verbatim transcriptions
Demonstrating sampling and data saturation
External validity - Generalising

Comparing

Theory or Accept/
CASE CASE
set of reject theory
questions/ Collection
Interpretation
Collection
Interpretation
or Data saturation
propositions propositions

Sampling Sampling

Comparing CASE Comparing

Collection
Interpretation

Replication through use of multiple cases (adapted from Flick, 2006)

But in generalising, qualitative researchers
need to be….
 Cautious, moderating the range of generalizing conclusions
 Careful in recognizing the limitations of time periods
 Meticulous in demonstrating clear linkages between
generalizing conclusions and the specific data that provide its
foundation
 Honest and transparent about findings that contradict the
conclusions
 Diligent in reporting alternative explanations or the constraints
on generalizations
Designing for reliability
 Data triangulation, where data are gathered using
multiple sampling strategies.
 Investigator triangulation, using more than one
observer in field situations
 Multiple triangulation, in which a combination of
multiple methods, data types, observers and
theories are combined
 Methodological triangulation, of which there are
two kinds: within-method, where the researcher
employs varieties of data gathering techniques
within the same method, and between method,
where a variety of different methods are used
But we could abandon conventional terms and
seek instead…
 Transferability with purposive sampling to illustrate pertinent
issues and factors when comparing two contexts for similarity;
and thick descriptions to provide evidence for making
judgements about similarities between cases.
 Dependability through the use of audit trails through the data.
 Confirmability, with the audit showing the connections between
data and the researcher’s interpretations.
 Credibility, the use of persistent observations; triangulation (of
data, methods, theories and investigations); member checks
(where data and interpretations are tested with research
participants).
Advantages of qualitative research
 Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and
perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new
research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:
 Flexibility
 The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as
new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided
beforehand.
 Natural settings
 Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic
ways.
Conti….

 Meaningful insights
 Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences,
feelings and perceptions can be used in
designing, testing or improving systems or
products.
 Generation of new ideas
 Open-ended responses mean that researchers
can uncover novel problems or opportunities
that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.
The 6 most popular QDA methods

 1.Qualitative content analysis

 2.Narrative analysis
 3.Discourse analysis
 4.Thematic analysis
 5.Grounded theory (GT)
 6.Interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)
Summary
 In qualitative research researchers are closer to the fields or
settings they are trying to research – it is highly contextual
 Qualitative research is not built upon a unified theory or
methodological approach – hence its variety and flexibility
 In qualitative research data analysis does not necessarily
follow data gathering – there can be a number of iterations
between the two
 Even though there are various schools of qualitative research
include grounded theory, ethnomethodology, narrative analysis
and ethnography, they all have one element in common –
generally, an inductive approach (although deduction or prior
questions cannot be ruled out)
Summary
 Methods of collecting qualitative data include interview
transcripts, field notes from observations, photographs, video
and unobtrusive data

 Decisions on whether to attempt generalization need to be

built into the research design paying particular attention to
sampling strategies

 Qualitative approaches to achieving rigour include building

trustworthiness, authenticity, creditability, transferability,
dependability and confirmability