BECT 300: RESEARCH METHOD FOR SOCIAL

SCIENCES 2023

Dr. Joel Kiambi Muriithi

LESSON ONE
Introduction to Research
Research is a systematic inquiry method whose purpose is to obtain knowledge or information
that pertains to some questions i.e. to expand knowledge and solve problems.

Therefore research is a process for arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the
planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research is a most
important tool for advancing knowledge, for promoting progress, and for enabling human beings
to relate more effectively to their environment, to accomplish his purposes, and solve his / her
conflicts.

There are several ways in which research in social science can be classified:

 Classification by goal and purpose and in this classification; we have two types of
research: basic and applied research.
 Classification by methodology; we may consider the following types: experimental,
correlational, ex post facto, survey, historical and qualitative.
 Classification by analysis composes quantitative and qualitative.
 Classification by method; which includes intervention, associational and descriptive
 Classification by objective: which include descriptive, explanatory, analytical and
predictive
 Other classifications are possible too.
Research has to have validity both internal and external validity. In other words, research has to
be technically sound and at times we may require it to be generalizable. It has to be done in a
way that the results are useful to the practitioners or consumers or both.

What is research?

Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a systematic inquiry method. The purpose of
social science research is to obtain knowledge or information that pertains to some question.
Research is conducted to solve problems and expand knowledge. To realize these goals we
need a systematic method of asking questions, a method, which will provide the most
accurate answers to our questions. Orodho (2003) defines research as the process for arriving
at dependable solutions to problems, through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and

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interpretation of data for the purpose of advancing knowledge, promoting progress, and enabling
human beings to solve their conflicts. The research process involves: identifying, locating,
assessing, analyzing, and then developing and expressing ideas.

Social science research should be systematic and scientific; hence it should follow the BASIC
STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD WHOSE ELEMENTS are:

1) Recognition and identification of problem: The nature of the problem to be studied or

investigated must be well conceptualized and understood. The related area of
knowledge should be identified and in essence a framework in which to conduct the
research established. Closely related to establishing the framework or foundation of the
research is the identification of any necessary assumptions related to the research
problem.
2) Review of relatered literature to gather the appropriate background information:
This involves information gathering about how others have approached or dealt with
similar problems. The research literature is the source of information. It also identifies
the knowledge gap and forms an entry point for the new researcher in the identified
problem area.
3) Data collection: The process of data collection requires proper organization and control
so that the data will enable valid decisions to be made about the research problem at
hand.
4) Data analysis: The data must be analyzed in a manner appropriate to the problem using
(SPSS) Statistic Package for Social Sciences.
5) Drawing conclusions: This is the last step is the act of data interpretation and drawing
conclusions or generalizations after the analysis has been made. These conclusions are
made upon the data and the analysis within the framework of the research study.

Properties of Scientific Research

The following are the main properties (nature) of scientific research (approach or enquiry)

a) Scientific research is empirical (experiential / practical / realistic / observed)

since the aim is to know reality: Only knowledge gained through experiences or
the senses – touch, sight, hearing, smell or taste is acceptable. The empirically
oriented social scientist goes into the social world and makes observations about how
people live and behave.
b) The research is systematic and logical: Observations are done systematically one at a
time, starting with description, explanation, and finally prediction. In addition the
correct order must be followed.
c) The research is replicable: Since the observation is objective and explanation
logical anyone carrying out a study in the same circumstances should come up with

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 the same finding. That is anyone placed in the same circumstance can observe the
same event and reasoning, leading to the same explanation and prediction. Since
subjectivity is assumed to be absent, it is possible to communicate each step of the
research to anyone and transmit the acquired knowledge.
d) Research is self–correcting: It has in-built mechanisms to protect investigators
from error as far as is humanly possible. In addition research procedures and results
are open to public scrutiny by other researchers.
e) Scientific research is question-oriented: It is directed by a research question or
several specific questions. These questions might spring from observation of natural
or social phenomena, a practical concern or gaps in what is reported in the previous
research studies and other scholarly literature.
f) Scientific research is public: Because the findings from scientific research may be
used to make decisions that affect people and society at large, scientific research
must be open to public scrutiny and examination and criticism by other scholars.
g) Scientific research is cyclical: It proceeds in stages starting with the research
problem, followed by research design, measurement design, data collection, data
analysis and generalizations or tentative answers and starts all over again by
asking new questions for further research.
h) Scientific research is self-critical: It critically examines its strengths, limitations and
weakness, and discovers and reports its validity and reliability.
i) Researchers strive to overcome their personal biases as much as possible: They do
this by clearly defining the phenomena being studied and using research procedures
to study those phenomena that other scholars will agree are accurate.
j) Scientific research is objective: Empirical evidence is assumed to exist outside of
scientists themselves. However, in the usual sense of term (to mean observation that
is free from emotion, conjecture, or personal bias), objectivity is rarely, if ever,
possible (Singleton and Straits, 1999, p. 30)
k) Scientific method is parsimonious (mean / sparingly / tightfisted) in that
explanation of phenomena or event is sort using few explanatory factors or variables
as possible. Thus there is no room for irrelevances. This is also true with research
approaches. The most parsimonious explanations is sort in research design.
l) Scientific method is open for modification: Note there is no absolute truth in
science. In other words our result findings can have errors. We are likely to make an
error of one type or another, whichever decision we make. This because in science we
make probabilistic statements. Similarly in research we only make probabilistic
statements which are prone to type I or type II error.
m) Scientific method is reliable: There need to be internal consistency in terms of
finding. If Jane does the same way as Paul, she should get the same result as
Paul. No bias is expected as long as conditions and the setting is the same. That is,
the same result will be obtained regardless whoever carries the research.

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 n) Quantitative researchers strive to make their findings generalizable to the target
population. Generalizability is achieved through the selection of representative
sample.
o) Scientific research is replicable: One major goal of conducting a scientific research is
to accumulate evidence over time that can be used to validate or disapprove
commonly held notions about social reality. Thus researchers attempt to design their
studies in such a way that other researchers can replicate their research findings.
Unlike everyday methods of knowing, the entire process of inquiry can be reproduced
by other researchers.

Epistemology and Foundation of Research

Research is one of the several ways of "knowing." The branch of philosophy that deals with this
subject is called EPISTEMOLOGY. Epistemology is the study of knowledge and pursuit of
the justification of facts and what is held as the truth.

As the study of knowledge, epistemology is concerned with questions such as:

What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge?
What are its sources?
What is its structure, and what are its limits?

As the study of justified belief, epistemology aims to answer questions such as:
How we are to understand the concept of justification?
What makes justified beliefs justified?
Is justification internal or external to one's own mind?
Understood more broadly, epistemology is about issues having to do with the creation and
dissemination of knowledge in particular areas of inquiry.

Epistemologists generally recognize at least four different sources of knowledge:

 Intuitive Knowledge forms such as belief, faith, intuition, etc. It is based on feelings
rather than hard "facts."
 Authoritative Knowledge is based on information received from people, books, a supreme
being, etc. Its strength depends on the strength of these sources.
 Empirical Knowledge is based on demonstrable, objective facts (which are determined
through observation and/or experimentation).
 Logical Knowledge is arrived at by reasoning from "point A" (which is generally
accepted) to "point B" (the new knowledge).

Research often makes use of all four of these sources of knowledge in the following ways:

 Intuitive (when coming up with an initial idea for research)

 Authoritative (when reviewing the professional and related literature)

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  Logical (when reasoning from findings to conclusions)
 Empirical (when engaging in procedures that lead to these findings)

The empirical knowledge is what most modern academic research aims at establishing and the
reason why there is emphasis on empirical academic research. Generally, epistemology can be
categorized into 6 broad areas based on the possible perspectives from which an individuals’
knowledge may be acquired, generated, stored or communicated. These include; Virtue, Nature,
Religion, Morals, Society and Feminism (Gender).

THE PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALE OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH

There are essentially two main research philosophies (or positions) although there can be an
overlap between the two – and that both positions may be identifiable in any research project.

POSITIVISTIC: (can also be referred to as ‘Quantitative’, ‘Objectivist’, ‘Scientific’,

‘Experimentalist’ or ‘Traditionalist’)

PHENOMENOLOGICAL (can also be referred to as ‘Qualitative’, ‘Subjectivist’, ‘Humanistic’

or ‘Interpretative’)

Research philosophy can impact on the methodology adopted for the research.
Research Philosophy refers to the overall approaches & perspectives to the research process as
a whole and is concerned with the following main issues:
 Why you collected certain data,
 What data you collected,
 Where you collected it,
 How you collected it and
 How you analyzed it.

Positivistic Perspectives of Research

Positivistic approaches to research are based on research methodologies commonly used in
science. They are characterized by a detached approach to research that seeks out the facts or
causes of any social phenomena in a systematic way. Positivistic approaches seek to identify,
measure and evaluate any phenomena and to provide rational explanation for it. This explanation
will attempt to establish causal links and relationships between the different elements (or
variables) of the subject and relate them to a particular theory or practice. There is a belief that
people do respond to stimulus or forces, rules (norms) external to themselves and that these can
be discovered, identified and described using rational, systematic and deductive (logical /
reasonable) processes.

Phenomenological Perspectives of Research

Phenomenological approaches however, hold that human behavior is not as easily measured as
phenomena (occurrence / events) in the natural sciences. Human motivation is shaped by factors
that are not always observable, e.g. inner thought processes, so that it can become hard to

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generalize on, for example, motivation from observation of behavior alone. Furthermore, people
place their own meanings on events; meanings that do not always coincide with the way others
have interpreted them. This perspective assumes that people will often influence events and act
in unpredictable ways that upset any constructed rules or identifiable norms – they are often
‘actors’ on a human stage and shape their ‘performance’ according to a wide range of variables.
Phenomenological (qualitative) approaches are particularly concerned with understanding
behavior from the participants’ own subjective frames of reference. Research methodologies
associated with this perspective thus tries to describe, translate, explain and interpret events from
the perspectives of the people who are the subject of the research.

LESSON TWO
Classification of Research Studies
Many researchers have classified research according to its purpose, the procedures employed and
the type of question they tend to raise.

Classification of research by purpose

Under this classification, research may be basic research or applied research.

Basic research: It is directed towards increase in knowledge. When successful, basic research
results in a fuller understanding of the subject matter under study and the generation of theories.
The primary aim of the research is not to produce data for practical use, but to enhance
understanding of the subject matter under study.

Applied research: Applied research is directed towards practical applications of knowledge and
when successful results in directives for development of blueprints. It is conducted for the
purpose of applying or testing theories and evaluating its usefulness in solving problems i.e.
developing knowledge that is directly useful to practitioners. Applied research may be action
research, operations research or development.

 Action research: It is a systematic study of a psychological situation with a view to

improving the quality of psychological practice. The main purpose is to solve
psychological problem through the application of scientific methods. It is not concerned
with whether the results are generalized to any other setting since its major goal is to
seek a solution to a given problem.
 Operational research (OR): It is designed to compare psychological interventions that
are designed to achieve similar objectives. Example: A project designed to test whether

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 students would be more likely to have positive attitudes toward environmental education
as a separate subject compared to those who learned Geography and Social studies.
 Research and development (R&D): It is carried out to develop effective educational
product as pupil’s textbooks, teacher’s guides, media programmes and teaching
strategies.
Classification by research methods (procedures)

Research can be classified according to the procedures employed and research questions raised.
The following are the most commonly used research procedures:

a) Historical research: It is the systematic collection and evaluation of data about past
events so as to identify causes and effects of those events in order to understand and
explain the present events. Historical researcher do not collect data by administering
instruments to individuals: they seek data that is already available.
b) Descriptive research: This involves the collection of data in order to test hypothesis or
to answer question concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It describes
the way things are e.g. a description of possible behavior, attitudes, values, and
characteristics.
c) Case studies: A case study consists of an intensive observation of a single subject in a
particular setting. It is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or
phenomenon.
d) Correlational research: It involves collecting data to determine whether or not a
relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. It involves the collection
of data on two or more variables on the same group of subjects and computing a
correlation coefficient. The relationship between the variables is studied without making
any attempts to influence them.
e) Causal-comparative studies: It attempts to identify cause-effect relationships among
variables that cannot be manipulated experimentally. The aim is to determine reasons or
causes for the current status of the phenomenon under study.
f) Experimental research: It involves the manipulation of independent variable to
determine their effect on a dependent variable. It is used to establish causal relationships
between variables. The research selects two groups, an experimental group and a control
group. The researcher makes a change in the values of one variable (the independent
variable) and observes the effect of that change on another variable (the dependent
variable).
g) Survey research: A Survey research is a study in which data are collected from the
members of a sample, for the purpose of estimating one or more population parameters
(Jaeger, 1988).

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The Purpose of Social Science Research

The purpose of research is twofold:

a) The generation and advancement of knowledge on the social science and education
process (teaching and learning process) and also the administrative styles and modes of
operation of educational or social science enterprise; and
b) The knowledge generated by the research undertaken should enable researchers and
others educational practitioners and policy makers to solve educational problems by
improving educational practice (teaching styles), processes (CATs, tuition) and other
education operations.
However, it should be stressed that in a general sense, any research oriented towards one or both
ends i.e. the generation and extension of knowledge and the solution of a problem. The two are,
therefore, not mutually exclusive.

Types of Research
From the viewpoint of objectives in undertaking a study research can be divided into four
distinct types as follows:

i) Exploratory: Exploratory research is undertaken when few or no previous studies exist. The
aim is to look for patterns, hypotheses or ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for
further research. Typical research techniques would include case studies, observation and
reviews of previous related studies and data.

ii) Descriptive: Descriptive research can be used to identify and classify the elements or
characteristics of the subject, e.g. number of days lost because of industrial action.
Quantitative techniques are most often used to collect, analyze and summarize data in this
research.

iii) Analytical: Analytical research often extends the Descriptive approach to suggest or explain
why or how something is happening, e.g. underlying causes of industrial action. An important
feature of this type of research is in locating and identifying the different factors (or variables)
involved.

iv) Predictive: The aim of Predictive research is to speculate intelligently on future possibilities,
based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and effect, e.g. predicting when and where
future industrial action might take place.

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To continue Next week
Approaches and methods of research

Depending on the type and focus of the research, the approaches and methods adopted in the
conduct of research can either be quantitative, qualitative or mixed method research.

Quantitative Research
Quantitative research method is used when researchers want to obtain a large body of data or
perform analysis in order to produce results that can be generalized to the target population.

Features of quantitative research:

 Yields data that are quantifiable i.e. reported in numbers like percentages and
frequencies. It normally wants to know the frequency of occurrences of an event and
percentage of people involved, e.g. the number of students who dropped out the
secondary schools due indiscipline cases, percentage of those who dropped due
pregnancies etc.
 Require large sample of individuals
 Concern with theory testing / verification
 Tends to analyze data deductively (Deductive reasoning move from generalized
principles that are known to be true to specific conclusion)

Quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship
among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that
numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The assumptions are that theories are
tested deductively. The basic building blocks of quantitative research are thus variables.
Variables (something that takes on different values or categories) are the opposite of constants
(something that cannot vary, such as a single value or category of a variable). Quantitative
research is mainly utilized in the natural sciences, rather than the social sciences and can be
categorized into two main methods: Experimental and Non-experimental research.

 Experimental Research. The purpose of experimental research is to study cause-effect

relationships. Its defining characteristic is active manipulation of an independent
variable (i.e., it is only in experimental research that “manipulation” is present). Also,
random assignment (which creates "equivalent" groups) is used in the strongest
experimental research designs.
 Non experimental Research: In non-experimental research there is no manipulation of
the independent variable. There is no random assignment of participants to groups. What
this means is that if you ever see a relationship between two variables in non-
experimental research you cannot jump to a conclusion of cause and effect because there
may be other alternative explanations for the relationship.

Qualitative Research

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This is a systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data in order to provide descriptions
and accounts of social events and objects of research in their natural settings. Qualitative
research consists of three kind of data collection: in-depth open-ended interviews, direct
observation and document analysis.

Data obtained from in-depth and open-ended interview

 Direct quotations from people about their experiences, opinions and knowledge
 Background information of the respondents

Data obtained from direct observation

 Detailed description of programme activities

 Teaching strategies used
 Availability of curriculum materials and physical facilities
 Training methodologies
 Participant behaviors

Features of qualitative research:

 It is a naturalistic inquiry-studies real world situation as they unfold. Qualitative

researchers are more interested in describing processes than outcomes.
 It aims at generating theories and hypothesis from the data that emerge. It does not aim at
testing pre-conceived hypotheses. It begins with specific observations and builds towards
general patterns.
 Data is analyzed inductively. It begins with specific observations and builds towards
general patterns (Inductive reasoning moves from specific instances into generalized
conclusion)
 Qualitative research uses observational techniques and interview methods on small
samples of target group to gain in-depth understanding of a programme, project or
educational activity
 Yields data that are not easily quantifiable for statistical analysis
 Data is characterized by detailed thick descriptions, in-depth descriptions and direct
quotations from the field
 Qualitative information describes what the social event or social artifact is like and gives
an indication of why it is the way it is
 Researcher is the key instrument in data collections

Qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human problem. There are five major types of qualitative
research: phenomenology, ethnography, case study research, grounded theory, and historical
research.

 Phenomenology – a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to

understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. For example, you

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 might interview 20 widows and ask them to describe their experiences of the deaths of
their husbands.
 Ethnography – is the form of qualitative research that focuses on describing the culture
of a group of people. Note that a culture is the shared attitudes, values, norms, practices,
language, and material things of a group of people. For example one might decide to go
and live in traditional communities, study, and document the culture and their educational
practices.
 Case study research – is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a
detailed account of one or more cases. For example, one might study a classroom that
was given a new curriculum for technology use.
 Grounded theory – is a qualitative approach to generating and developing a theory from
data that the researcher collects. For example, one may collect data from parents who
have pulled their children out of public schools and develop a theory to explain how and
why this phenomenon occurs, ultimately developing a theory of school pull-out.
 Historical research – research about events that occurred in the past. For example, a
study on; “The use of corporal punishment in schools in the 1970s”.

Mixed method research

This is a combination of quantitative and qualitative research methods. A researcher can adopt
mixed method research because of the following reasons:
 Researcher’s competency in both quantitative and qualitative research
 The nature of the research problem
 Time available
 When dealing with sensitive issues that numbers cannot explain
 When in-depth data is required

Mixed research is an approach to inquiry that combines both qualitative and quantitative forms.
It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the
mixing of both approaches in the study. It is more than simply collecting and analyzing both
kinds of data. It involves the use of both approaches in tandem (cycle) so that the overall strength
of the study is greater than either qualitative or quantitative research. The two major types of
mixed research are the mixed method research and the mixed model research.

 Mixed method research – is research in which the researcher uses the qualitative
research paradigm for one phase of a research study and the quantitative research
paradigm for another phase of the study. For example, a researcher might conduct an
experiment (quantitative) and after the experiment conduct an interview study with the
participants (qualitative) to see how they viewed the experiment and to see if they agreed
with the results. Mixed method research is like conducting two mini-studies within one
overall research study.
 Mixed model research – is research in which the researcher mixes both qualitative and
quantitative research approaches within a stage of the study or across two of the stages of
the research process. For example, a researcher might conduct a survey and use a
questionnaire that is composed of multiple closed-ended or quantitative type items as

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 well as several open-ended or qualitative type items. Another example is where a
researcher collects qualitative data but then try to quantify the data at the analysis stage.

Advantages of Mixed Research

The main advantage is that the researcher may mix quantitative and qualitative research methods,
procedures, and paradigm characteristics in a way that the resulting mixture or combination has
complementary strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). The
conduct of mixed research is encouraged due to the following reasons.

i. When quantitative and qualitative approaches are used to focus on the same phenomenon and
they provide the same result, you have "corroboration" which means you have superior evidence
for the result.

ii. Other important reasons for doing mixed research are to complement one set of results with
another, to expand a set of results, or to discover something that would have been missed if only
a quantitative or a qualitative approach had been used.

Contribution for Research Knowledge

To consider how research has contributed to knowledge on education or social sciences, we need
to distinguish four types of research knowledge: (i) description (ii) prediction (iii) control /
improvement and (iv) explanation (Borg Gall, 1989; Orodho, 2009, 2012).

BASIC ELEMENTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Population

Population refers to an entire group of individuals, elements, events or objects having common
observable characteristics e.g. all form three students in the county, all teachers in public
secondary schools in the county etc.

Sample

A sample is relatively small group of individuals / objects chosen in a scientific fashion to

represent a relatively large group of individuals (population) which the researcher is interested in
studying e.g. fifty public secondary school teachers in a particular county. Therefore a sample is
subset and a representation of a population

Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the large group from which they were selected. Thus sampling is a
process of selecting a stated number of individuals from a larger group.

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A constant

A constant is a characteristic of objects, people or events that does not vary e.g. temperature at
which water boil is a constant (100 degrees centigrade)

Variable

A variable is a characteristic of objects, people or events that can take on different values. It can
vary in quantity such as height, weight, age, viscosity, price of goods, speed of moving object or
in quantity such as skin texture, gender, occupation, type of school, marital status. That is, a
variable is measurable characteristics that assume different values among different subjects.

Types of variables

Independent variable and dependent variables

An independent variable is one which the researcher manipulates (controls) in order to determine
its effect or influence on another variable. A dependent variable is one whose occurrence is
influenced by the independent variable. For example the influence of hours of studied
(independent variable) on performance in a research test (dependent variable); Relationship
between duration of time spent by students in school (independent variable) and the amount of
salary that they subsequently earn (dependent variable); Alcohol consumption (independent
variable) affects reaction time (dependent variable) among short distance runners.

Discrete and continuous variables

A discrete variable takes finite / exact / whole values e.g. number of children in a family,
number of hospitals in a certain county. Discrete variables are those variables which can increase
or decrease by whole numbers and not by fractional or decimal amounts. There are variables
which come in whole unit and have definite number of value. E.g. there are 35 students in a class
not 35.5 students. Nominal data (e.g, true or false; yes or no e.t.c) and ordinal data (e.g, ranking
in a completion; position in family born, number of children in the family e.t.c) are discrete
variable.

Continuous variables are those variables which include decimal or fractions e.g. height, weight.
They have infinite number of values between any two points. For example, heights of people
between 1.2 meters and 1.8 meters can be 1.323 or 1.3235 or 1.75. Therefore continuous variable
are set of all values within a given range, all inclusive.

Extraneous and control variable

These are variables which influence the results of a study when they are not controlled for.
However, if the extraneous variable is included in the study, it is referred to as control variable.
The introduction of a control variable in a research study increases the validity of the data and
therefore it leads to more convincing generalizations.
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Concept

A concept is an interpretation / idea / image of a particular phenomenon e.g. professional

qualification, performance, intelligence, gender, etc.

Conceptual definition

This is defining a concept using another concept. This approach is not good in research.

Operational definition

This is defining a variable as used in the context. One defines the variable according to how it
will be measured. It is the description of the operation that will be used in measuring the
variable.

Research problem

A problem is a question of interest which can be answered through the collection of data. It is an
intellectual challenge that requires answers through collection and analysis of data. A problem is
not a difficulty being experienced.

Theory

A theory is a set of concepts and the interrelations that are assumed to exist among those
concepts. Hypotheses are developed theories

Hypothesis

 It is a researcher’s tentative prediction of the results of research findings, and is most

commonly stated in quantitative research.
 Hypotheses are tentative answers to a research problem, expressed in the form of a
clearly stated relation between the independent and dependent variables. They are
tentative answers because they can be verified only after they have been tested
empirically. When proposing a hypothesis, the researcher does not know whether it
will be verified or not. It is constructed before data is collected and then tested after
data has been collected.
 A hypothesis is a guess or an assumption because it may state a true or an untrue
relationship between variables in a research.
 It is a statement that describes an unknown but tentatively logical outcome of the
current state of affairs or phenomenon.
 It is an educated guess about possible differences, relationships or causes of a
research problem (Orodho and Kombo, 2004).
 It is a prediction of relationships or difference that a research expects to find as a
result of the study.

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  It is an anticipated outcome or solution of a research problem which is only verified
after data has been collected and analyzed.

BCP 308 RESEARCH METHOD LESSON THREE

STAGES IN RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process is cyclic and involves the following stages:

1) Selecting and definition of research problem / Topic

i) Selecting the topic for research and identification of the research problem
ii) Reviewing related literature
iii) Formulating the research problem
iv) Formulating research questions, objectives and hypotheses
v) Defining concepts
2) Selection of the research design
i) Choice of research design
ii) Description of the sample and sampling procedures
3) Measurement design
i) Identification of data collection procedure
ii) Construction of research instruments
4) Data collection
Collection of data using a variety of research instruments

5) Data analysis
i) Data organization
ii) Data processing
iii) Quantitative and qualitative data analysis
6) Generalization
i) Interpretation of data
ii) Conclusion and recommendation
iii) Production of research report

IDENTIFYING RESEARCH PROBLEM

A research problem is the subject matter of inquiry in a research.

It is the issue or concern that is investigated in a research process.

The first step in indenting a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is interested in
which normally one’s field of specialization is e.g. counseling psychology, guidance and
counseling, teacher education, clinical psychology, educational psychology etc. after selecting

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the broad area, you then identify a specific topic within the broad area. This should be done after
a thorough review of literature in the broad area. After identifying the topic, narrow it down to a
specific researchable problem.

The central element in any research is the problem.

Once the problem has been identified and adequately defined, the systematic and scientific
process of making observations and collecting data can be more easily carried out.

From an analysis of the data collected, some significant results would be expected in anticipation
of finding a solution to the problem.
However, you could say that a large part of the solution to the problem lies in knowing precisely
what the problem is in the first place.
After all, how can you solve a problem it you don’t know what the problem is?

The prior planning of a research study is an important phase.

Not only does a problem have to be identified, but before the research can begin to take shape,
the problem has to be analyzed and its exact dimensions specified.
A good research problem should have the potential of making contribution to the existing body
of knowledge, lead to possible solutions to the issues addressed, manageable and unique.
It should be researchable, ethical, reasonable in scope, lead to analytical thinking that generates
relevant information and be based on relevant literature.

Sources of Research Problems

1. Searching existing / related literature – textbooks and articles

2. Existing theories – one may want to validate or invalidate existing generalizations or
principles.
3. Discussions with experts – discussions in class or seminars may reveal current problems
that could be researched e.g. teachers, drugs and substance use, marital issues, parental
conflict, school unrests, early pregnancies, marital violence, etc.
4. Previous research studies – previous studies normally indicate areas of further research
5. Personal experience / direct observation of the needs of psychological programmes
6. Media – issues that are frequently reported in the media may form a basis for a research
problem
7. Brainstorming happens when two or more people generate ideas for research
Examples of research problem / topics

 Causes of drug abuse among secondary school students

 Effects of marital conflicts on adolescent social adjustment in secondary schools in
Kenya
Characteristics of a good research problem

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A research problem must also feasible / viable. It is feasible if it is within the researcher’s
interest and knowledge, ethical and if it can be carried out within allocated time using available
human and material resources.

A good research problem should:

 Be one which can be investigated through collection and analysis of data

 Be stated clearly and concisely (briefly)
 Have potential significance i.e. should lead to findings that have widespread implications
in a particular area
 Generate a number of more specific research questions
 Relate to an academic discipline such as science, education, psychology, mathematic
 Have basis in the research literature
 Be one that you can carry out within the available timeframe and budget
 Have sufficient data available or can be obtained to address it.
The best way to define a research problem is to ask yourself the question, “What do I want to
find out?” It is recommended to first state the problem in form of a question e.g.What are the
cause of substance use among the secondary school students?

LESSON FOUR

Identifying a research problem

The first step in identifying a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is interested in which
is normally one’s field of specialization e.g. Mathematics education, curriculum and instruction, teacher
education etc. After selecting the broad area, you then identify a specific topic within the broad area. This
should be done after a thorough review of literature in the broad area. After identifying the topic, narrow
it down to a specific researchable problem.
Sources of research problems
a) Search existing/ related literature – textbooks and articles.
b) Existing theories – one may want to validate or invalidate existing generalizations or principles.
c) Discussions with experts – discussions in class or seminars may reveal current problems that
could be researched e.g. teachers, curriculum specialists, educational administrators, researchers
and lecturers.
d) Previous research studies – previous studies normally indicate areas of further research.
e) Personal experience/ direct observations of the needs of educational programmes.
f) Media – issues that are frequently reported in the media may form a basis for a research problem.
g) Brainstorming happens when two or more people generate ideas for research,
Examples of research topics/ problems
1. Factors affecting the teaching of counseling psychology in the Catholic University of Eastern
Africa, Kenya.
2. Effect of drugs abuse among secondary school student in Murang’a county, Kenya
3. Marital conflict and social adjustment of secondary school students in Kiambu County, Kenya.

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 


Characteristics of a good research problem

1. Should be one which can be investigated through collection and analysis of data
2. Should be stated clearly and concisely
3. Should have potential significance i.e. should lead to findings that have widespread implications
in a particular area.
4. Should generate a number of more specific research questions.
5. Should relate to an academic discipline such as mathematics, science or education.
6. Should have a basis in the research literature
7. Should be one that you can carry out within the available timeframe and budget.
8. Sufficient data should be available or can be obtained to address it.
The best way to define a research problem is to ask yourself the question, “What do I want to find out?” It
is recommended to first state the problem in form of a question e.g. what factors affect the teaching of
peace education to the youth in Kenya?
Narrowing the research problem/ topic
Research problems are usually narrowed down to manageable topics.

Stating Research Questions, Objectives and Hypotheses

A research problem is usually broken down into a set of concrete research questions, objectives and
hypotheses that will be investigated separately. It should be noted that there is no need to use both
research questions and objectives in the study. Use only one of them.

Research Questions

Research questions refer to questions which a researcher would like answered by undertaking the study.
The difference between research questions and objectives is that a research questions is posed in a
question form while an objective is a statement.
Example:
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTERGRATED HIV/AIDS SECONDARY SCHOOL
CURRICULUM IN WESTERN KENYA
Main question
What are the challenges facing secondary school teachers in the implementations of HIV/AIDS integrated
school curriculum in Kenya?
The following research questions were raised to provide answers to the research problems.

 To what extents are secondary teachers clear about the objectives of HIV/AIDS integrated
curriculum?
 To what extent are teachers trained to implement this kind of curriculum?

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  Is there a significant difference between the teachers’ attitudes towards HIV/AIDS victims and
their performance at the implementation level?
 How compatible is this curriculum with the existing social and educational structures?
 To what extent are teachers supported in the implementation of the HIV/AIDS integrated
curriculum?
Research questions can be rewritten as research objectives. In such cases, you should tell the reader that
the study will do any of the following:
a) Discover (grounded theory).
b) Explain, to seek, to understand.
c) Explore a process (a case study).
d) Describe the experiences.
e) Determine.
f) Investigate.
Research questions are the sub-research problems and are arrived at by fragmenting the big questions into
small parts each treating a specific aspect of the main problem. The questions may be formulated using
the words:

 What………………………………
 How………………………………..
 To what extent………………………..
 Is there………………………………
Objectives
Objectives are what the researcher seeks to achieve. They help the researcher keep to the scope of the
study by identifying the area of knowledge that the researcher is focusing on. They are stated using terms
such as identify, determine, find out, establish etc. Objectives should be “SMART”.
Examples
Objectives of study

 To determine the teachers’ clarity about the objectives of the HIV/AIDS integrated curriculum.
 To find out the extent to which teachers are trained to implement this kind of curriculum.
 To establish the teachers’ attitudes towards the HIV/AIDS integrated curriculum.
 To establish the teachers’ attitudes towards HIV/AIDS victims and their performance at
implementation level?
 To find out the compatibility of this program with the existing social and educational structures.
 To determine the extent to which teachers are trained to handle this kind of curriculum.

RESEARCH PROBLEM
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In order for a researcher to conduct any research, he/she must identify and define the problem
that prompts the research that is to be undertaken. You should be adequately acquainted with
information on the possible sources of research problems and procedures of determining the
scope and stating feasible research problems. This topic therefore, focuses on giving you insights
into the concept, importance, characteristics and sources of research problems, as well as
procedures of stating, and criteria for determining a feasible research problem. Related
components of research that are determined, to a large extent, by the research problem such as
research purpose, objective, and hypotheses have also been adequately covered in this topic.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate understanding of the concept of a research problem.

2. Describe procedures for identifying, determining and stating a feasible research problem.
3. Explain ways of stating research objective and the justification for their inclusion in a
research project.
4. Elucidate the formulation of research questions and hypotheses and their importance in
the research process.

TABLE CONTENT

 Definition of a Research Problem

 Importance of Stating a Research Problem
 Sources of a Research Problem
 Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
 Feasibility of a Research Problem
 The Process of Defining and Selecting a Research Problem
 How to State a Research Problem

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RESEARCH PROBLEM

The statement of a research problem is a key component of the introductory section of any piece
of research proposal and/ or report. Therefore, you must carefully select and define the research
problem because it provides direction to the rest of your research process. Some definitions of a
research problem include that:
 It is an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the form of scientific enquiry or the
subject matter of inquiry in a research.
 It is an issue, concern or controversy that puzzles the researcher due to its effect or
consistence despite available measures to prevent its occurrence
 It is a set of conditions needing discussion, a solution and/or information.
 It is the issue or concern that is investigated in a research process. These areas of concern
can be in terms of conditions to be improved, difficulties to be eliminated or questions
seeking answers.
Importance of Stating a Research Problem

The statement of a research problem serves a number of purposes in a research. These include
the following;
i. Statement of a research problem determines the areas of focus in a research. This implies that it
gives direction to the research process.
ii. It gives insights into the gravity of the issue that needs to be investigated.
iii. It highlights the scientific investigation(s) to be undertaken.
iv. It sheds light on the procedures to be involved in addressing the identified issue(s).
v. It strengthens the justification for conducting a study because it avails information that shows
the necessity for conducting the study.
vi. It broadly illuminates the scope of the study because it captures the attributes of investigation
in a research.

Sources of a Research Problem

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Problems for research may be derived from various sources. Your ability as a researcher to
identify and select a viable research problem is therefore, dependent on your initiative of
recognizing and utilizing the available sources of problematic phenomena.
The sources include:
i. Available theory that encompasses organized body of concepts, generalizations and principles
that can be subject to investigation. For instance, one may test the specificity, relevance or
application of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development.
ii. Literature review can avail some areas of interest that can be studied. Such literature may
include textbooks, journal articles and conference proceedings. (Refer to TOPIC 5 of this module
to read more on Literature Review)
iii. A researcher may also identify a research problem from previous research which may either
have generated some findings that have not been followed up or indicated areas for further
research. Specifically, theses and dissertations usually have provisions for the researcher to
indicate areas that can be considered for future research.
iv. A researcher may review a successful research or experiment, disagree with results, the tests
used or methodology, and consequently decide to refine the research process and/or retest the
hypotheses to determine if the findings can be sustained over time and/or across regions. This
mode or source of research problem is also referred to as replication.
v. A research problem can also arise from personal experience. This may be in terms of personal
interest in a given topic, observations of puzzling, controversial or disturbing occurrences
(phenomena) or can stem from questions that the researcher keeps asking himself/herself.
vi. Discussions with experts such as researchers are another source of problems for research.
Consultations with experienced practitioners and researchers in one’s area of interest can
generate prevailing problematic areas that could be researched upon.
vii. Issues that are frequently reported in the media can also form the basis of a research problem.
For instance, the media gives coverage of political, social, economic, scientific and health issues
that may capture the interest of a researcher. In a nutshell, the media is an important source of
research problems.

There are a number of characteristics that are pertinent to a good research problem.

Feasibility of a Research Problem

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A good research problem must be feasible (viable / practical /reasonable / realizable /realistic); it
should be that which can be conducted within the competence of the researcher and available
resources. To be feasible, a research problem must meet specific criteria.

CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING THE FEASIBILITY OF A RESEARCH

PROBLEM
For a research problem to be feasible or viable it should meet a certain criteria. This
includes:-
i. It should be within the researcher’s interest to study it. If a research topic or
problem is simply allocated to the researcher by another person, it would be very
unlikely that the researcher would have much interest in it.
ii. A research problem is feasible if it can be carried out within the allocated time.
The researcher should therefore, select or identify a research problem that can be
undertaken within given timeframes.
iii. Feasibility of a research problem is also dependent on appropriate timing as to
when the data can be collected. Data collection may only be possible for some
research studies at certain times. A research is therefore, feasible if the timing for
data collection is appropriately considered.
iv. In order for a researcher to be able to conduct the identified research, it is
important to consider availability of the subjects of the research. It is necessary to
be sure that the individuals, subjects, objects or cases with the desired
characteristics will be readily available for the study.
v. The question of whether or not the required consent, permission and/or authority
to conduct the research will be secured also determines if a research can be
conducted or not. For instance, if a research involves children and people with
physical or mental disability, it is necessary to seek the permission of parents or
guardians. The researcher must therefore, be sure from the onset that any such
permissions and approvals will be secured in the envisaged research.
vi. Availability of the required facilities and equipment also determines the feasibility
of a research. The researcher must ascertain if it will be possible to secure the
facilities and equipment that will be needed for the research project. The facilities
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may include laboratories, open spaces, gymnasium and others, while equipment
can include computers, telephones, photocopying machines, microscopes, etc.
vii. It is important to consider if the available or anticipated financial resources will
be adequate for conducting the research. The researcher should make a projection
of expenses of the research before deciding to embark on the research.
viii. A research problem is viable if it is within the researcher’s prior knowledge or
experience. It should be that which the researcher can conduct with relative ease
using procedures that he/she is familiar with.
ix. A feasible research problem should uphold ethical considerations of research as
protecting the subjects from harm and avoiding exposing them to unfair demands
or intruding on their privacy.

The Process of Defining and Selecting a Research Problem

Research originates with an idea about some general problem or question. However, the process
of actually defining and selecting the research problem can be challenging and time-consuming
as it requires a lot of exploring, reflection and logical approaches. The researcher may follow a
number of phases so as to eventually select the problem for research.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

(1) Interest
 If you are going to commit yourself to a piece of educational research, then it is
important that you are interested in the topic you are researching.
 By being interested, you are more likely to read widely on the topic and have a more
thorough knowledge of the situation.
 Background reading is an essential equipment for any person wanting to undertake a
piece of research.
 Although this is a necessary requirement, it is not a sufficient criterion for selecting
research problem.
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  In fact, over-specialization can lead the researcher into investigating trivial problems
that are of interest only to himself.
 On the other hand, the issue does not have to be of concern to everyone, but the results
should be communicable and of interest to someone.

(2) Size
 Here is where you need to exercise some professional wisdom. • At the outset, problems
are usually macro in size.
 This means that they are often too large for satisfactory results to be obtained.
 For example, a researcher wanting to investigate the quality of water in a certain area
would be faced of determining the sample of water which is representative.
 However, further analysis, reduces the problem into a smaller and manageable research.

(3) Economy
 Research are often confronted with practical constraints, not the least of which are time
and money.
 What could have possibly been a worthwhile piece of research has often not been
successfully completed because of the enormous personal sacrifice required on the part of
the researcher in terms of the amount of time that can be devoted to the project and the
amount of money required to carry it out.
 Even at the initial planning stages, it is wise to think about the possibility of receiving
some support, both financial and non-financial, either from within your institution or
from outside sources.
 Again, this may not be realized by direct monetary grants but could simply be in access
to equipment-printing, stationery supplies, typing, etc.

(4) Researcher’s Capabilities and Limitations

 A researcher must recognize his own capabilities and limitations. • If inexperienced in

educational research, then it is highly likely that you will need some guidance.
 By organizing for an advisor or for others interested in research or on your area of study

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 to monitor your progress, especially in the planning stages, then it is quite likely that
some of the ensuing difficulties will be overcome.
 It will be an advantage if you have people willing to support you throughout the
research-to suggest alternative approaches, assist in clarification of issues, etc.

(5) Uniqueness

 A researcher would not want to spend a lot of time and energy researching a problem if
the answer to the problem already existed.
 That is, you would not want to duplicate a study.
 However, you may want to pursue a study similar to one already in existence but change
the methods used, or modify the design, or use a different sample, or choose to perform
different statistical analyses.
 You would then be replicating an existing study, and the research would then be
considered unique in that it is not exactly like any other piece of research.
 A researcher has to think about a number of issues when planning a research project.
 These a priori considerations are important for the future success of the project.
 Whether anticipating using the results for a specific practical purpose or not, there are a
number of questions that need answering once a problem situation has been selected,
before progressing any further.

How to State a Research Problem

The formulating of a research problem statement is an important phase in the compilation of a

research proposal or report. You therefore, need to be adequately equipped with information on
the characteristics or criteria for determining a good problem statement. These are as
presented below.

i. A good problem statement should clarify what is to be determined or investigated. In other

words, it should capture the issue or concern that is addressed in a study.

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ii. The statement of the problem should be clear and focused; it should not be vague or
ambiguous.

iii. The statement should show the urgency, importance and need for the research.

iv. It should show the scope of the research. This means that it must highlight the variables of
investigation.

v. The problem statement should be brief but precise; this may range from half a paragraph to
two pages.

vi. It must also capture the purpose of the research.

Importance of Stating and Defining a Research Problem Well (10 minutes)

Statement of the research problem is a major component of a research. It is imperative that you
state the problem clearly and precisely because a clear statement of the problem:

 Is the foundation for the further development of the research proposal (research
objectives, methodology, work plan, budget, etc.)
 Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies which can be beneficial
to your own study design development.
 Enables you to systematically point out why the proposed research on the said problem
should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the study results.

STATING THE PURPOSE OF A RESEARCHA purpose refers to a researcher’s intended task

of availing a solution (or solutions) to the problem under study. The purpose statement broadly
highlights the focus of your study in terms of the variables you will address, the research task
and subjects of your study. The research task as captured in the purpose statement is presented
using verbs such as determine, examine, assess, evaluate, analyze, and so on.

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Example of a purpose statement
“The purpose of this study will be to assess the effect of alcohol consumption on reaction time of
sprinters and long distance runners.”

WEEK FIVE

HYPOTHESES
After stating the research problem, the researcher presents the hypotheses. Hypotheses state
possible differences, relationships, causes between two variables or concepts. They are stated
prior to the execution of the study, and data is collected and analyzed so as to either support or
reject the hypotheses. Hypotheses can only be formulated after the researcher has gained
enough knowledge regarding the nature, extent and intensity of the problem.

What is a Hypothesis?

Hypothesis is defined and described variously as follows:

 Technically, the word ‘hypothesis’ is a Greek word that means ‘an assumption subject to
verification’.
 It is a researcher’s tentative prediction of the results of research findings, and is most
commonly stated in quantitative research.
 Hypotheses are tentative answers to a research problem, expressed in the form of a
clearly stated relation between the independent and dependent variables. They are
tentative answers because they can be verified only after they have been tested
empirically. When proposing a hypothesis, the researcher does not know whether it will
be verified or not. It is constructed before data is collected and then tested after data has
been collected.
 A hypothesis is a guess or an assumption because it may state a true or an untrue
relationship between variables in a research.

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 It is a statement that describes an unknown but tentatively logical outcome of the current
state of affairs or phenomenon.
 It is an educated guess about possible differences, relationships or causes of a research
problem (Orodho and Kombo, 2004).
 It is a prediction of relationships or difference that a research expects to find as a result of
the study.
 It is an anticipated outcome or solution of a research problem which is only verified after
data has been collected and analyzed.
Sources of Hypotheses

 Researchers derive hypotheses either deductively (deductive reasoning moves from

genarlized principles that are known to be true to a specific conclusion) from theories
or inductively(inductive reasoning move from specific instances to generalized
conclusions) move from direct observations of phenomena or a combination of these
two approaches.
 Hypotheses may also be based on the results of previous studies or on the researcher’s
past experience in the selected area of research.
 The other source for stimulating the statement of hypotheses is the professional
literature. A critical review of literature in a given professional field can familiarize
the researcher with the current state of knowledge and with concepts and variables
that can be used to formulate hypotheses.

Types of Hypotheses

Two types of hypotheses are subjected to testing in any research (or alternative)
hypothesis and null hypothesis.

a) Null Hypothesis (Statistical Hypothesis)

Null hypothesis is also referred to as statistical hypothesis. This type of hypothesis is

always stated in the negative and is tested with statistics so as to decide whether to
accept or reject it. A null hypothesis, which is usually symbolized by Ho1 states that
there is no difference or no relationship between the variables being studied. Data is

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then subsequently collected and analyzed to determine if it is supported or rejected.
Examples of null hypotheses:

Ho1 There will be no significant difference in the fitness levels of male and female
students who participate in aerobic training.

Ho1 There will be no significant relationship between duration of time spent by students
in school and the amount of salary that they subsequently earn.

b) Research Hypothesis (Alternative Hypothesis)

The research hypothesis is also referred to as alternative hypothesis. This type of

hypothesis states that there is a relationship between variables being studied and which
needs to be determined or verified. It is the opposite of null hypothesis and usually
symbolized as Ha1. It is however, important to note that if a null hypothesis is tested
and rejected, the alternative hypothesis is accepted.

Alternative Hypotheses are of two types:

i. Alternative Non-Directional hypothesis: Which does not indicate the direction of the
relationship or differences between the variables under study. In other words, there is no
expression of specific outcome or anticipated relationships or differences. Examples of
alternative non-directional hypotheses:

Ha1 Alcohol consumption affects reaction time among short distance runners. (In this
case, the hypothesis does not indicate whether alcohol consumption reduces or increases
reaction time).

H2 Civic Education has an effect on voting patterns (This hypothesis does not state
whether the effects of civic education are negative or positive)

ii. Alternative Directional hypothesis: Which specifies the nature of relationships or

differences between the variables being studied? The hypothesis shows the extent of the

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relationship (which may be greater or lesser) or extent of differences (which may also be
greater or lesser, higher or lower). Examples of these type of hypotheses are as below:

Ha1 Alcohol consumption reduces/increases reaction time among short distance runners.
Ha1 There is positive/negative relationship between liquid consumption and onset of heat
stroke.

Characteristics of Hypotheses
Research hypotheses share a number of common characteristics or distinguishing features
as outlined below:

(i) Hypothesis must be clear with regard to highlighting the variables under study.

(ii) Hypothesis specifies or points out expected relationships between or among variables
in terms of direction (positive or negative)

(iii) Hypotheses must be testable using available methods. They are testable through
collection and statistical analysis of data that makes it possible to have them either
supported or refuted.
(iv) They are value-free, that is, they are free of researcher’s own values, biases and
subjective preferences. In other words, they must be related to empirical phenomena.

(v) Hypotheses must tally or be in harmony with the stated purpose and objective of the
study.

(vi) They must be stated in measurable terms. They must define variables that are
quantifiable and/or make it possible to collect data that can be statistically analyzed.

(vii) They are stated in clear and precise wording.

(viii) They must be derived from relevant theory, literature, results of previous studies or

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researcher’s professional experience, and consistent with the existing body of knowledge.

(ix) They must be consistent with common sense or generally accepted truths.

(x) An effective hypothesis is simple and concise (brief / short / summarized). Compound
hypotheses that highlight many variables can present difficulties in testing.
(xi) A good hypothesis must be that which can be tested within an acceptable time frame
or in duration of time that is within the reach/convenience of the researcher but not within
a very long time due to effects of attrition of the subjects and other factors that may be
affected by time.

Importance of Stating Hypotheses in Research

The importance of formulating and stating hypotheses in a research are exhaustively
presented by Kombo and Tromp (2006) and Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) as below:
i. Hypotheses are important because they specify expected relationships between
variables being studied. Such relationships are clarified or verified after collection and
analysis of data.
ii. They help in strengthening and concretizing the research problem; they clarify the
research problem at hand.
iii. Hypotheses give direction to the research process because they form the basis upon
which data is collected and analyzed.
iv. They highlight the variables that are examined or investigated in a research.

v. Hypotheses form the basis upon which conclusions and recommendations of a study
are made, that is, researchers usually base the conclusions of their studies on the results
arising from testing of hypotheses.
vi. Hypotheses enable researchers to check the validity (soundness / strength) of theories;
they avail possibility of testing the usefulness, relevance and/or truthfulness of abstract
information or ideas.

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LESSON SIX

LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION
In this topic you will learn about the process of literature review. Literature review is a crucial
part of the research process. As noted by Denscombe (2002), literature review puts the research
in context by locating the research within the context of the published knowledge that already
exists about the area that is being investigated. Thus, there is need to find out what is already
known in one’s areas of research, what has been done before, and just as important, how it has
been done. The main general rule is that any study should be located in the context of what has
been done before. This makes the difference between a targeted, thorough and well-designed
study and one that is fragmented, diffuse and loosely planned.
It is imperative that you make an intensive and thorough investigation into the relevant literature.
Relevant literature refers to those sources that are important in providing the in-depth knowledge
needed to study a selected problem.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:-

i. Define literature review and discuss the rationale of carrying out literature review.
ii. Examine the various sources of literature review.
iii. Carry out and evaluate the literature review.
iv. Identify gaps after reviewing literature.

TOPIC CONTENT
 Definition of Literature Review
 Rationale for carrying out literature review
 Sources of literature review
 Identification of gaps
 Planning the search for literature and recording
 Evaluating the literature review

DEFINITATION OF LITERATUTE REVIEW

Literature review is a process that involves finding, reading, understanding and forming
conclusions about the published research and theory on a particular topic (Brinks, 2003).
According to Neuman (2007), literature review is also a carefully crafted summary of the recent
studies conducted on a topic that include key findings and methods researchers used, while
making sure to document the sources.

Neuman (2007) furthers notes that a literature review is based on the assumption that
knowledge accumulates, and that people learn from and build on what others have done.

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Scientific research is a collective effort of many researchers. Researchers read studies to compare
replicate or criticize them for inadequacies.

QUICK QUIZ

1. Define literature review.

2. State the assumptions underlying literature review.

ASSIGNMENT

1) To what extent is scientific research a collective effort of many researchers.

2) Literature review is a process. Discuss this contention.

REASONS FOR CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW

1. It enables the researcher to determine what is already known about the topic to be
studied
Thus a comprehensive picture of the state of knowledge on the topic can be obtained. This helps
to avoid unnecessary duplication, and increases the probability that the new study may make a
distinctive contribution.

2. It helps to obtain clues to the methodology and instruments

a. This aspect of the literature review provides the researcher with information on strategies,
procedures and measuring instruments that have been found useful.
b. It also helps one to avoid mistakes made by other researchers; to clarify how to use certain
procedures that one may not have learnt in theory and types of data collecting instruments that
exist and work.
c. It further suggests other procedures and approaches that may improve the research study.
determine

3. To develop and refine the research questions or objectives of the research

a. Literature review enables the researcher to reach a decision about precisely what needs to be
investigated. Moving from broad areas of interest, a review of the literature should channel the
investigation towards a series of quite specific research questions (Denscombe, 2001).
b. Having looked at what is available; the researcher should move beyond this and take things
forward by noting focused, finite and feasible questions to investigate.
This will also help to refine the conceptual framework, design and data analysis process.

4. To learn from others and stimulate new ideas

a. A literature review tells what others have found out, hence enables a researcher to benefit from
the efforts of others. Moreover, a good literature review identifies blind alleys and suggests
hypotheses for replication.
b. It divulges procedures, techniques, and research designs worth copying, so that a researcher
can better focus hypotheses and gain new insights (Neuman, 2007).

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The researcher may further be alerted to new research possibilities that have been overlooked in
the past.

5. To demonstrate familiarity with existing ideas and information, and establish credibility
Literature review enables the researcher to develop proficient awareness of the main issues and
debates in the field of interest. A good literature review provides the opportunity to demonstrate
familiarity and the researcher’s professional competence and ability. This enhances the
credibility of the research in the eyes of those who read it. This is particularly important in
connection with academic dissertations and research theses.

6. It shows the path of prior research and how the current study is linked to it.
A good literature review outlines the direction of research on a question and shows the
development of knowledge. As Neuman (2007) argues, a good review places a research study in
a context and demonstrates its relevance by making connections to a body of knowledge.

7. Justifies the choice of research topic and approach as necessary and timely
a. According to Denscombe (2002), a crucial purpose of the literature review is to justify the
research as something that is worthwhile and valuable in terms of what it can contribute to the
existing material.
b. Literature review ought to demonstrate the need for the research and convince the reader that
the research addresses an area that warrants investigation.
c. As part and parcel of this, the literature review needs to argue the case that its contribution
involves some element of originality and involves, in some way, something that has not already
been done.
d. It can also show how the research is timely in the sense that what it investigates and what it
finds are of particular significance in relation to contemporary events.

8. Basis for comparison

a. The findings from previous studies form the basis for comparison when interpreting the
findings from a current study.

9. Informing or supporting the study

In qualitative studies, the review of literature serves to inform or support the study, especially in
conjunction with the collection and analysis of data.

10. To integrate and summarize what is known in an area

A literature review pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. It
analyzes and synthesizes different results and points out areas where prior studies agree, where
they disagree and where major questions remain. It thus reveals gaps in information where new
researchers need to venture into. By so doing, it indicates the direction for future research.

DISCUSSION FORUM

What do you think is the importance of a thorough literature review?

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Examine the importance of conducting a thorough literature review (10 marks)

SOURCES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

These can be categorized into two:

(i) Primary sources

These are those in which the data are reported and written by the person or group that actually
gathered the information, or conducted the investigation.

When reviewing literature, one should strive to use the primary sources. This is because the
information from secondary sources may be faulty due to misinterpretation. When undertaking
literature review, a researcher search should rely more on primary sources because they provide
the most unbiased raw material.

(ii) Secondary Source

They are those in which the reporter of information is not the person or group that actually
obtained the data. Secondary sources usually summarize or quote content from primary sources.
Authors of secondary sources paraphrase the works of researchers and theorists and hence
interpretation is influenced by that author’s perception and bias.

EXAMPLES OF SPECIFIC SOURCES OF INFORMATION

The section below details the sources of information.

1) Scholarly Journals
They are a crucial source of information. Researchers usually disseminate findings of new
studies in scholarly journals. The journals are filled with peer-reviewed reports of research. They
vary by field e.g. Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, Archaeology, Political science,
Communication etc.
Many scholarly journals may be viewed via the internet – for example JSTOR and EBSCO
HOST.
University and College libraries have a section for scholarly journals. Each issue is assigned a
date, volume number, and issue number. Other details include the author, title and page number
– this information is called an article’s citation.

2) Books
They contain reports of original research or collections of research articles. Libraries shelve these
books and assign call numbers to them.
One can locate these books through the library catalog system, which has citation information on
them e.g. author, year, title, place of publication, publisher. Various economic and psychological
studies, social work, sociology, political science, ethnographic descriptions and complex
theoretical or philosophical discussions usually appear as books.

3) References to books

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A useful way of identifying key sources is follow up references given at the back of relevant
books and other articles. These are likely to pinpoint certain sources as being significant, and the
researcher can pursue them by using the references section in the book or article to locate and
retrieve the sources.
It becomes apparent to the reviewer that a number of sources are referred to frequently.

These can be taken to be significant works in the field and ones that have been influential in
terms of their findings and arguments.
Such are evidently considered to be important enough to warrant attention, and should therefore
be included in the array of key sources (Denscombe, 2002).

4) Theses and dissertations

Students who receive the Masters Degree conduct original research and write a Master’s thesis.
Also students who receive the Ph.D degree are required to complete a work of original research,
which they write up as a dissertation thesis. Dissertations are bound and shelved in the Library of
the University that granted the Ph.D. Some of these are eventually published as books or articles.
Dissertations are valuable sources of information because they report on original research.

5) Government documents
Government and international agencies usually sponsor research studies. The reports of these
studies are published thereafter. University Libraries hold these documents in a special
“government documents” section e.g. 2009 population census.

6) Policy reports and presented papers

Research institutes and policy centres publish papers and reports. One can get them from the
institutes and centres or research libraries.
Papers are usually presented at conferences as oral reports or written papers. Such papers can be
listed in indexes or abstracts. Some papers are later published as articles.

7) International indices
Specialized indexes list dissertations completed by students at accredited universities e.g. the
Dissertation Abstracts International lists dissertations with their authors, titles and universities.
This index is organized by topic, and contains an abstract of each dissertation.

8) The Internet
The internet has revolutionized research. Researchers access the internet regularly to assist them
in reviewing literature and search for various information sources. Internet search is highly
productive, and opens up access to relevant literature on a global scale, and including the latest
research from a huge variety of sources.

The internet enables researchers to source materials from almost anywhere e.g. Library, and
home. It is operational twenty four hours a day. Through various websites and home pages, one
can get materials from related sources.
Thus it connects people to more information and provides instant access to cross referenced
material. It can yield a huge amount of information. Wellington (2000) points out that carefully
chosen key words can narrow down the shoal of references hauled in by a literature trawl. It

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depends on the discretion of the researcher to make the task of reviewing the literature
manageable.
The internet is also fast and the information is available instantly. It can also transmit material in
graphics, clips and various colors and thus presents material in a more dynamic and interesting
manner. However, one should be cautious when using material
from the internet because some of it may be highly biased and fraudulent.
9) Abstracts
They contain brief summaries of articles. Abstracts usually give the name, volume and issue
number of the journal where the full article can be found. Examples of such abstracts are:

 Psychological abstracts
 Sociological abstracts Dissertation Abstracts International, which is a comprehensive
source for doctoral dissertations.
 Gerontological abstracts.
 Many abstracts are available via computer access, which speeds the search process.
 Abstracts are published on a regular basis (monthly, half yearly etc), and allow a
researcher to look up articles by author name or subject.
 Abstracts do not give one all the findings and details of a research study. Researchers
usually use them to screen articles for relevance.

10) Statistics
These provide information that can be used as a basis of comparison and can be an important
source of literature. Some important statistics can be found in Government policy documents
such as statistical abstracts, economic surveys, etc.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Distinguish between primary and secondary sources of literature review.

2. Enumerate the major sources of literature.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Examine the importance of the various sources of literature review.

2. Discuss the relative importance of the internet as a source of literature for review.

GAPS IDENTIFICATION

According to Denscombe (2002), literature review uses the existing material as the basis for
showing how the current research has something valuable to offer.

For some researchers, this can be a matter of building upon what has been done before, using the
existing findings as a platform for deciding where to go and what new bits of knowledge are

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needed. Other researchers concentrate on identifying areas that have been overlooked so far, and
use the review of the literature to show that their research “Fills a gap” in existing knowledge.
Gaps in literature are voids that a researcher intends to fill after carrying out literature review.
And still other researchers adopt a critical stance, reviewing the existing material to show its
inadequacies. Their literature review tries to point to the flaws in earlier investigations.

Thus it demonstrates the relevance of the research by showing how it addresses questions that
arise from a careful and considered evaluation of what has been done so far, and how the current
research aims to “fill in the gaps” in information.

ASSIGMENT

1. Choose a relevant journal article, review it and show the gaps.

2. Discuss the importance of filling gaps in literature.

PLANNING THE SEARCH FOR LITERATURE AND RECORDING

This is a very important aspect of literature review. It basically includes:-defining and refining
the topic; designing a search, locating research reports and keeping systematic records.

Defining and refining the topic

In conducting a search for literature, a researcher should first clarify the research topic he or she
wishes to investigate. This calls for clarity of purpose. Denscombe (2002) argues that fuzzy
thinking and a lack of clarity about the topic are likely to lead to topics that are much too broad.
One should therefore clarify the topic and indentify key terms or variables relevant to the topic.

Designing a search

Once a researcher chooses a focused topic for the review, the next step is to plan a search
strategy. According to Neuman (2007), the reviewer needs to decide on the type of review, its
extensiveness, and the types of materials to include. The key is to be careful, systematic and
organized. Set parameters on your search: how much time you will devote to it, how far back in
time you will look, the minimum number of research reports you will examine, how many
libraries you will visit, how to record the bibliographic citation for each reference and how to
take notes e.g. in a notebook, cards or computer file.

Locating research reports

A researcher should use multiple search strategies in order to overcome the limitations of a
single search method. This should be guided by the nature of the research and the purpose for
which it is conducted e.g. a Ph.D thesis is expected to contain a detailed and extensive literature
review.

The literature search is likely to be derived from several sources namely:

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Indexes covering various fields
Scholarly journals
Abstracts
Thesis and dissertations
Scholarly books
Internet searches
Once the researcher has a list of potentially relevant articles, reports, books, etc, then he or she is
ready to locate the sources.

Locating the sources involves the following steps:

1. Organizing the list of identified sources

2. Searching for those source
3. Systematically recording references
4. Determining additional ways to locate sources e.g. interlibrary loan

Keeping a systematic record

Once the researcher has identified and located the pertinent literature, it is necessary that he or
she establishes a systematic method for recording pertinent information.
Initially, the approach was to write notes onto index cards. Each article would be entered
separately on a card. Each entry would include the following information.

1) Author (s) name (s)

2) Date of publication
3) Tile of the article, report or book
4) Name of the journal or publisher
5) Volume and number of the journal
6) Place of publication (if a book)
7) Pages on which the material appears and
8) The notes you have made about it
These cards are kept in alphabetical order by author or title for ease of use. Currently, researchers
who have access to the computer use word-processing software. For either the note cards or
computer documents, one should create two kinds of files, namely:

(i) Source file-where all the bibliographic information for each source is recorded.
(ii) Content file- contains substantive information of interest from a source, usually:

 Problem statement
 Definition of concepts
 Hypotheses, if any
 Theories or assumptions used
 Instruments used
 Data analysis
 Findings
 Your evaluation of each aspect

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 Careful note – taking and reference citation are very crucial.

A systematic recording process increases the accuracy of the references in your report. After
gathering a large number of references and notes, a reviewer needs an organizing scheme. One
approach is to group studies or specific findings by skimming notes and creating a mental map
of how they fit together e.g. placing notes into piles representing common themes, or drawing
charts comparing what different reports state about the same question, noting agreements and
disagreements.

As Newman (2007) notes, in the process of organizing notes, you will find that some
references and notes do not fit and should be discarded as irrelevant. Also, you may discover
gaps or areas and topics that are relevant but that you did not examine. This necessitates return
visits to the library. It is best to organize reports around a specific research question or around
core common findings of a field.

QUICK QUIZ

Briefly explain how you can keep a systematic record during the process of literature review.

Welcome to the Moodle community!

Moodle is a Course Management System (CMS), also known as a Learning Management System
(LMS) or a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). It is a Free web application that educators can
use to create effective online learning sites.

Moodle.org is our community site where Moodle is made and discussed. Please use the menus to
explore and join in!

ASSIGNMENT

1. Identify a topic of our choice and carry out a review of pertinent literature. Remember to
consult a wide range of literature sources as possible.
2. Identify five related journal articles, review them and write a literature review.

EVALUATING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Researchers should critique their own review, keeping the following in mind:

 Comprehensiveness of the review

 Relevance to the problem under study
 Whether it is up to date
 Whether all sides of the issue are represented
 Adequacy of research based evidence
 Logical organization of the review

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  Critical appraisal of the contribution of key studies
 Whether it appears to be sufficiently objective
 Balanced use of secondary sources.

A review should communicate a sense of purpose. The right way to write a review is to organize
common findings or arguments together. A well accepted approach is to address the most
important ideas first, to logically link statements or findings, and to note discrepancies or
weakness in the research (Neuman, 2007).

LITERATURE REVIEW (STUDY)

For each of the reviewed study tease out the gaps that makes your study necessary. Answer the
questions:

1) Who did it?

2) When?
3) Where?
4) Among whom ( describe the participants in terms of their nationality, age, sex, level
of education among others)/
5) What was the major objective?
6) Did the study use the same theory as your selected theory?
7) What was the research design?
8) How were data collected?
9) What are the key findings?
10) What was the others conclusion / interpretation of the results?
11) What are the key knowledge and methodological gaps in the study?
12) How will your study fill some or all the gaps?
Arrange your studies the recommended order as you address each objective;
1).Global – outside Africa
2). Regional – Africa
3). East Africa
4). National – Kenya
At least two studies from each area.

QUICK QUIZ

Briefly describe any five aspects that you should bear in mind when evaluating the literature
review.

Topic Assignment

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 1. Define literature review citing the various sources of literature
2. Explain the importance of literature review.
3. Discuss the rationale for carrying out a thorough literature review.
4. To what extent does literature review inform or support an ongoing study?

Assignment

Briefly explain how you can identify gaps after reviewing literature.

1. Explain how a researcher can keep a systematic record of reviewed literature.

2. By means of a flow diagram show the process of literature review.
3. Describe how you can plan the search for literature.
4. Examine the importance of criticizing ones review of literature.

POPULATION AND SAMPLING

INTRODUCTION

In our preceding topics, you have been exposed to important elements of research, which include
the research problem, research design, variables and hypotheses among others. These elements
are meaningless without some people for the researcher to manipulate the variables against. For
instance, the success of a research study depends on the people researcher interacts with.
Defining a study population is an integral part of a research process. It is not enough to claim
that an investigation has been successful or not without describing the type of participants on
which the study was tested. The description of the participants requires a specification of criteria
for eligibility. While the research design chosen determines the general approach to the study, it
does not describe who the study will investigate. This topic looks at the concepts of study
(target) population and the techniques involved sampling of who is to be investigated.

TOPIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Differentiate between target and accessible population

2. Explain the qualities of an effective study population
3. Explain the rationale and criteria for the selection of study population and sampling
techniques.
4. Select appropriate sampling techniques for different types of studies.

TOPIC CONTENT

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  Definition of a study population
 Types of Population
 Importance of defining a study population
 Qualities of an effective study population
 How to select a study population
 Delimiting a study population
 Study (target) population
 Sampling
 Errors and biases in research

POPULATION IN RESARCH

Defining a Study Population

Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) define population as “an entire group of individuals, events or
objectives having a common observable characteristic”. Population is the aggregate of all that
conforms to a given specification. Thus, a study population refers to the aggregate of all cases
that conform to some designated set of specifications. For example, by the specifications of
students attending secondary school in Kenya, we define a population as consisting of students
attending secondary school in Kenya.

You as a researcher must know what kind of information he or she wants, who has the
information and where to find the person. The group that a researcher has in mind from whom
he/she can obtain information is called a population. All research questions address issues that
are of great relevance to important groups of individuals known as a research population.
A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the main
focus of a scientific query. It is for the benefit of the population that researches are done. A
particular population has some characteristics that differentiate it from other populations. For
example, in a study about the research methodology course in Catholic University, the possible
population can be all the Masters students and Lecturers teaching the course. So, population
simply means possible group from whom information can be obtained.

A research population is also known as a well-defined collection of individuals or objects known

to have similar characteristics. Usually, the description of all individuals or objects within a
certain population has a common, binding characteristic or trait.

TYPES OF POPULATION IN RESEARCH

There are two types of a study population-target and accessible. We’ll discuss each of them in
turn.

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i. Target Population

A researcher defines the population to which he or she wants to generalize the results. Ideally,
we would like to generalize results to the absolute population or the entire population. This is
referred to as the target population.
Therefore, the target population consists of all members of a people or objects to which we
generalize the results of our investigations.

Examples of a Target Population:

*All form 4 students in Kiambu County

*All HIV/AIDS victims in Kajiado County
*All post primary teachers in Nakuru County

The target population is also known as the theoretical population and usually has varying
characteristics and it. It is often impractical to select a representative sample from the target
population because it may be difficult to identify individual members. A single member of a
population is referred to as a sampling unit.

ii Accessible Population

The accessible population is the population in research to which the researchers can apply their
conclusions. This population is a subset of the target population and is also known as the study
population. It is from the accessible population that we draw our samples.

Even if you have a target population, it is not possible that you can reach each and every one of
them. Some of the people might be located at different places while others might not be easy to
come by. So, then you will think of the people or items in the target population that you will be
able to reach or are accessible. This is referred to as the accessible population.

Example
If one’s target population is Form 4 students in Kiambu County, it will not be possible to reach
all. Therefore, there will be a target population from some area like Thika, Gatundu, Limuru and
Ruiru sub county. The students from these areas would constitute the accessible population.

We therefore draw samples from an “accessible population” This is a more narrowly defined and
manageable population. This however, as Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) observes creates a high
likelihood of losing of the generalizability of the results and, therefore, researchers must try to
demonstrate that the “accessible population” is comparable to the target population in the
characteristics that appear most relevant to the study. This process is referred to as population
validity and it is a way of establishing that the accessible population is in itself representative of
the target population. Hence generalizations to the accessible population can be applied to the
target population with confidence.

There must be a rationale for defining and identifying the accessible population from the target
population. This rationale must be based on some theory, professional experience or previous

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studies.

Example

A researcher wants to study the effect of HIV/AIDS among primary school going children in
Kajiado County. The target population here may be defined as all primary school pupils in
Kajiado County. The accessible population must be the most representative of the target.
Therefore, the accessible population and the target population must be comparable on
many characteristics, which are important to the study.

IMPORTANCE OF DESCRIBING A STUDY POPULATION

An unambiguous demarcation of the study population will give a secure basis for planning your
study, reporting its findings and assessing their reliability. Besides, it will be useful for anybody
who is considering applying your findings to his or her own context because it permits
comparing the intended new population of study to the one that was investigated earlier.

Only when the two populations match sufficiently, it is possible to assume that the findings could
be valid in the new context, too, though you have to remember that this assumption will always
remain a speculation only.

How to identify a study population

The researcher should bear the following in mind while identifying a study population:

i. The research title: The researcher should reflect on the research topic particularly both the
independent and dependent variables as well as the study objectives. This will help the
researcher identify the most suitable type of population for the study.

ii. Identify the largest population which can relevantly be used as respondents in addressing
the research questions and meeting the specific objectives.

iii. The characteristics of the study population: The researcher should consider the
heterogeneity and characteristics of the potential study population in line with the study
objectives.

iv. Suitability of the potential study population: The researcher should evaluate the
effectiveness of the selected population in meeting the study objectives, accessibility as well as
representation.

QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE STUDY POPULATION

Kombo and Tromp (1996) identify the following as the qualities of an effective study population:

i. Diversity: An effective study population should be as diverse as possible. The applicability of

the research findings highly depend on the greater the diversity the study population is.

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ii. Representative: It is imperative and incumbent upon the researcher to identify and select
respondents that fulfill the questions that research seeks to address. For example, If the study is
on the effects of HIV/AIDS among primary school pupils in Kajiado County, it is important that
the majority of the respondents from the target population be pupils from Kajiado County.

iii. Accessibility: An effective study population should be easily accessible to a researcher.

iv. Knowledgeable: An effective study population should have an idea of the topic being
investigated.

DELIMITING (DEMARCATING / DEFINING) THE TARGET POPULATION

When the study concerns several empirical objects or events, these usually belong to an already
existing class i.e. People, cars, animals etc. Physical objects can be either people, animals or
lifeless objects like, for example, cars, and chairs. Therefore, the first and most important
delimitation of the target population of a study is thus normally based on the essence of the
objects or events.

Delimitations that are based on essence lead often to very large, perhaps infinite populations
which are difficult to enumerate and manage in research. For example, students without any
other delimitation mean all students in the universe. The remedy is to apply simultaneously two
or more delimitations, perhaps on geographical and/or temporal basis like all postgraduate
students in Catholic University taking the research methodology course in first semester of
2019 / 2020
The strategies available for delimiting the target population are a little different depending
whether your study is a:

 Descriptive study
 Normative study – Normative research differs from descriptive studies because the target
is not only to gather information (facts) but also to point out in which respect of the study
can be improved. Usually the project even includes planning an approach for carrying out
the necessary improvement. It aims at improvements, which means that it include
evaluation of the present state of things and also of the direction of future development.

STRATEGIES USED TO DELIMIT THE TARGET POPULATION

Delimiting the study population of descriptive study

Descriptive studies are those that a researcher intends to gather knowledge about the cases. In
delimiting the study population of a descriptive study, it is always commendable to use already
well-established classifications, or at least to define them in objective terms so that it is not the
researcher who shall deem whether a given case belongs to the population or not. Otherwise,
when selecting the cases to be studied the researcher's prejudices (which can be biased) influence
too much the results of the inquiry, because the researcher can inadvertently select mostly such
cases which corroborate his preconceptions or hypotheses.

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However, the major obstacle in delimiting a study population for a descriptive study is that very
few classes of objects or events are clearly defined in specific terms, or there are several
alternative definitions that are being used in different contexts.

Delimiting the study population of a normative study

Usually, a normative study aims at improving something, and normally this target already
defines what the class of objects in the study should be. It might be a single problematic case or a
group of cases, which the researcher seeks to improve on the basis of the outcome of his/her
investigation.
An alternative target could be that the improvements shall be directed, not to now existing
objects, but to future objects belonging to the same class. In practice, these future objects quite
often are new products of the company that is financing the study. In this case, you normally
would select as study of objects of the existing products that resemble the ideas that the company
has in mind for the new product. They might be the company's now existing products or
competing products in the market. For example, one could wish to research on the performance
of Coca cola brands such as Coke, Fanta, and Novida in the Nairobi area.
In normative purpose it is customary to study meritorious cases which can serve as examples for
later products, but it is also possible to study educational examples which are hoped to illuminate
earlier errors that can be avoided in later works. You could, for example, study existing products
which suffer from a certain defect. Or you could study companies that were first doing well but
then made a fatal move.

Delimiting the Class and Number of Respondents

Sometimes the researcher can collect all the facts that he needs directly from empirical studies
and from literature, but quite often it turns out that some facts can be obtained only by asking
people who have first-hand knowledge about the matter. It is not always self-evident how this
class of respondents should be defined and where these people are to be found.
When contemplating which people might serve as reliable respondents, it can be helpful to think
about possible sources of false information. Among these, the following two are common:
1. Respondents which do not really know the facts about the topic.
2. Respondents which do not want or do not dare to speak truth.

Though, the two cases above are difficult to discern in a survey, because an unwilling respondent
may also dislike giving his grounds for the denial.
For example, taking the first category of respondents who do not have any idea about the topic of
study reveals the respondent's ignorance of facts, not rumors or fantasies about things which the
person has no experience on. Consider the following questions and answers that could be
presented in a survey:

 "Have you had problems with driving?" "Never."

Note that such an answer could quite well mean that the respondent has never driven or is
has never trained as a driver.
 "What do you think of the public transport service in your country?" "Nothing to
complain”

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Note that many respondents have no experience on how the public transport works in other
countries. The answer measures not much else than how demanding the person is and it cannot
be used for measuring the quality of transport or for ranking countries in this respect.
The examples above show that there is not much point in putting questions to people if you do
not first ascertain that they know something about the matter. This implies that a researcher
should filter or select from a study population respondents who have at least some information
on the topic of study.

SELECTING RESPONDENTS FOR YOUR STUDY

Explain the criteria for the selection of study population and sampling techniques
(12 marks)
For selecting respondents who have and who can give true and pertinent information of the
matter, while keeping out the less reliable respondents or filtering away their false speculations,
you might consider, among others, the following strategies:

1. When your population of potential respondents presumably includes both experts on the
matter and uninformed people, you can start the interview or questionnaire by asking:

 Are you familiar with the topic?

 Are you familiar with the various brands of lets say Coca Cola?
 Have you used the product in question?

The difficulty is that many people are not willing to disclose their ignorance and want to give
their opinion about any topic even when it is just guessing and hearsay.

2. Select only people that are known to have used the product that is being studied. An
excellent source would be a customer register, if the company has one. Otherwise, users of
products can be met at places where the product is customarily being used. For example, you can
interview car users at service stations, parking lots etc.

3. Consult only experts, i.e. known researchers, designers, engineers etc. in the pertinent field of
technology. However, the difficult with this criterion is that specialists almost never belong to a
definite population that you could enumerate and select a proper sample of it.
4. You can use snowball sampling method to identify the right respondents.

Note that when you filter out "unreliable" respondents and information that you consider
erroneous or irrelevant, you should always keep in mind the possibility that the anomalous data
which do not harmonize with your expectations are perhaps not faulty at all, and in fact it is your
hypothesis or your expectations that are at fault

QUICK QUIZ

1. What do you consider to be an effective study population?

2. What are the stages involved in selecting a study population?

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3. How do you determine reliable and unreliable respondents?
4. Why is it so important to describe and delimit a study population?

You have been selected to conduct a research on the psychological effects of COVID – 19 on
school going pupils in Nairobi County, Kenya. Describe how you could select the study
population and the respondents for your research (23.3 marks)
You have been selected to conduct a research on the effects of the expansion of Nairobi-Thika
super highway. Describe how you could select the study population and the respondents for your
research.

DESCRIPTION AND SELECTION OF THE STUDY

When conducting a study, it is important to clearly define the group you want to gather
information and make conclusions about. This group is called the study or target population.
Imaginative choice of study population can make the difference between a dull study which just
reiterates known facts and an interesting study providing a useful extension of knowledge. The
study population should be clearly defined in terms of place and time, as well as other factors
relevant to the study. It is important to specify very precisely what the population is, where it
comes from, and how the sampling frame is constructed. This will make clear to which
population the conclusions of the study refer. For example, a study population may be defined as,
“All women of child-bearing age (15 – 49 years) resident in Kibera slum at the time of the study”

The choice of the study population depends to a large extent on the nature of the research
question. The choice should be such that the results of the study can be extrapolated confidently
to the broader population of which the study population is a part.

SAMPLING

Purpose of Sampling

Elucidate the rationale for sampling in research.

 The study (target) population once defined is usually too large to investigate in its
entirety. It would be cumbersome, expensive and almost an impossible task to involve the
whole population in the study. It is neither practical nor necessary to study all individuals
in the study population. To produce a workable number of subjects, what is referred to as
a sample subset or subgroup) of individuals from the study population should be selected
through some form of sampling procedure. The sample should be selected such that the
results obtained are applicable to the study population. Therefore the sample should
closely reflect or represent the study population. If the sample is representative, one can
generalize sample results to the population. Scientific sampling methods have been
developed to ensure that samples are representative of the study populations they come
from. Nonetheless, not all the samples are representative of the study populations they

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 come from.

METHODS SAMPLING

Methods of Sampling can be categorized into two; Random/probability sampling and

non-random/non-probability sampling.

Random/Probability Sampling

Random sampling is a selection tool which can ensure that one’s sample is representative
of the study population. This is also known as probability sampling, since each individual
in the study population has a known chance (probability) of being included in the sample.
While you can control the sampling process, you have no control over exactly which
individuals are selected. Probability sampling is any method of sampling that utilizes
some form of random selection. The randomization of the selection process ensures that
no biases, conscious or unconscious, on the part of the researchers, influence the choice
of study subjects. Whether an individual is selected or not is determined by chance. To be
able to do random sampling, one needs a sampling frame. This is a list or some
representation (for example a map, geographical area) of the study population. This is a
real or imaginary list of the sample unit. Sampling units are those items to be sampled
and are usually subjects but may also be clinics, schools, and health facilities for
example, in a county or in a country.

i Simple random sampling

Requires a pre-existing sampling frame, where the sampling units are numbers
sequentially and each one has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. For
example, in order to choose a simple random sample of medical doctors in Nairobi to
investigate their knowledge on HIV and AIDS, one would need to make a list of all the
doctors in Nairobi and give each one of them a number. In case of a simple random
selection of households in a defined area for example, each house is allocated a number.
To select those to be included in the sample, one has to draw random numbers. This is
done by; balloting, using a table of random numbers or by generating random numbers on
the computer in excel spread sheet.
Many times, the use of this method of sampling is limited by the existence of a sampling
frame which must be complete. Even where the sampling frame exists, it is often
unnumbered, so that a form of sampling which avoids the two requirements is of more
practical value.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

 Truly representative if the sampling frame is complete.

 Every sampling unit has an equal chance of being selected.

ii. Systematic Sampling

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Systematic sampling is a version of simple random which avoids the need for a sampling frame
and therefore simplifies the randomization procedure. The first unit sampled is randomly
selected. Individuals are selected systematically from some list of ordering for example, every
tenth doctor on a list of practitioners or every 3rd house may be selected from a map or area or
every 5th woman attending maternal and child health clinic. The complete population need not
be known before one starts to select the sample. One could, for example, select a random sample
from admissions to a hospital, as people are admitted. Systematic sampling is considered random
because the beginning point is randomly selected. The nth individual after the starting point is
then selected systematically.

If the population size is known, sampling depends on the population size and the size of the
sample. A sampling interval is then calculated by dividing the population size by the sample size
(Sampling interval = N/n). To determine the random starting point one has to select a random
number within the sampling interval. It is important that the list or queue is not ordered
according to some system or cyclical pattern.

iii. Stratified random sampling

If subgroups in the population differ in regard to the measurements being made or information
being collected, then the subgroups (strata) should be represented adequately in the sample. For
example, new arrivals in a refugee camp may be at higher risk of malnutrition. Although they
may form only a small proportion of the study population, they can be chosen as a distinct
stratum. The study population should therefore be divided into mutually exclusive (no
individual should belong to more than one stratum) and exhaustive (that is, each individual
should be able to find a stratum to fit into) strata. A simple random sample of individuals is then
selected from each stratum. It is thus necessary to have a full list of the individuals in each
stratum. This is called stratified random sampling. Typical strata are age groups, sexes,
geographical areas or social class categories. Strata should be selected so that the variation of the
characteristic of interest between strata is maximized and variation within strata minimized.
Therefore, there should be little difference with respect to the characteristic of interest within the
subgroup, and large differences between subgroups. Often the number of individuals selected
from each stratum is proportional to the size of the stratum in the study population. This is
known as proportional stratified sampling. Equal numbers can be chosen from each stratum to
facilitate comparison between strata particularly when the population in each stratum is very
small such that if chosen proportionately, will not have enough sampled individuals to allow
statistical comparison.

Advantages of proportional stratified sampling:

 Generates more representative data than if the study population is not stratified.
 Separate estimates are available for each stratum allowing for comparisons if the sample
sizes are large.
 If each stratum is sampled separately, and the results are combined appropriately, then
this gives a population estimate with tighter confidence interval (more accurate) than
simple random sampling.

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The major limitation of the stratified sampling method is the need to have a full (comprehensive)
list of the study population.

iv Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling, the study population is first divided into groups (clusters) that are in general
less homogenous (same) but which are administratively linked in some way. The sampling unit
here is the cluster. Clusters are then selected at random. Typical clusters are schools, city
blocks, villages etc. After a random sample of clusters has been selected, all individuals, or a
random sample of the individuals in the selected clusters, are included in the sample.

Advantages:

 This method is convenient in studies involving large geographical areas. In rural areas,
villages are usually treated as clusters.
 Considerable savings are made in terms of time, personnel and transport and other
logistics than if simple or systematic sampling were used.
 This method is especially convenient if there is a list of clusters, but not individuals in
each cluster. Many community-based studies are done using cluster sampling.

Limitations:

The clusters may not necessary be the same especially in confounders. If the characteristics
being measured are random (heterogeneous) within each cluster (for example, some children are
immunized and some not) then the clusters are representative of the population. The results
would be unbiased and similar to that from a simple random sample, and the cluster would have
been easier to study than a random sample. But if people in the same cluster tend to be alike (for
example all children are immunized) the cluster sample is much less efficient than a simple
random sample and the results could be biased. This is known as Design Effect. Therefore, the
sample size should be about double that of the corresponding sample size in a study using simple
random sampling because of the heterogeneous clusters. Additionally, to minimize biased
results, many clusters with few individuals per cluster should be chosen, rather than few clusters
with many individuals. In general, no fewer than 30 clusters should be selected. Furthermore, it
is important that the analysis takes into account the cluster design.

v. Multistage Sampling

The four methods of sampling we have covered so far; simple, stratified, systematic and cluster
are the simplest random sampling strategies. In most real applied social research, we would use
sampling methods that are considerably more complex than these simple variations. The most
important principle here is that we can combine the simple methods described earlier in a variety
of useful ways that help us address our sampling needs in the most efficient and effective manner
possible. When we combine sampling methods, we call this multi-stage sampling. This
sampling strategy entails working from a large to progressively smaller sampling frames. The
sampling units at one level then provide the sampling units at the next level. For example, if we
want to investigate “The status of overweight and obesity among primary school children in

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Nairobi County”, we may categorize the schools according to; socio-economic status, whether
public or private. We could then select a number of schools in each category by simple random
sampling. Having selected the schools, we could then stratify female and male students in each
class. Having done so, we then select by simple random sampling, a number of female and male
students proportional to their numbers. In this way we will have: stratified schools into public or
private in the first stage of sampling; selected the schools from to enlist in the study by simple
random sampling; stratified the students from each class into female and male; and selected by
simple random a proportionate sample of females and boys from each class.

The example shown in the flow chart below illustrates Multistage Stratified Sampling
Technique. A study is to be conducted in 4 Public and Private Mixed Secondary schools in
Kisumu City in Kenya. The first stage of the sampling is to select 2 Public Mixed Day Schools
and 2 Private Mixed Day Schools by Simple Random Method. This is done by obtaining a list
of all mixed public and private day secondary schools in Kisumu East District from the District
Education Office. Two public and two private schools are then randomly selected using Table of
Random Numbers to form the sample. In each school, equal proportions of male and female
students are randomly selected from each class (Forms I to IV) to form the required sample of
372.

Multistage Stratified Sampling Method

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Differentiate between the following:

a) Systematic and Simple random sampling

b) Sampling units and Sampling frame

Non-Random Sampling

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The difference between non-probability and probability sampling is that non-probability
sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does. Does that mean that
non-probability samples are not representative of the population? Not necessarily. But it does
mean that non-probability samples cannot depend upon the rationale of probability theory. At
least with a probabilistic sample, we know the odds or probability that we have represented the
population well. We are able to estimate confidence intervals for the statistic. With non-
probability samples, we may or may not represent the population well, and it will often be hard
for us to know how well we have done so. In general, researchers prefer probabilistic or random
sampling methods over non-probabilistic ones, and consider them to be more accurate and
rigorous. However, in applied social research there may be circumstances where it is not
feasible, practical or theoretically sensible to do random sampling.

Non-random sampling is generally not recommended for quantitative studies but widely
desirable for qualitative researches because such samples are prone to sampling bias and are not
representative of the study population. Consequently, some statistical techniques (inferential
statistics) that assume a random sample cannot be used on non-random samples and therefore
this method limit of sampling limits the type of statistical analysis that can be used.

Non-probability sampling methods can be divided into two broad types: accidental or
purposive Most sampling methods are purposive in nature because we usually approach the
sampling problem with a specific plan in mind. The most important distinctions among these
types of sampling methods are the ones between the different types of purposive sampling
approaches.

TYPES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING APPROACHES

i) Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, sampling is done with a purpose in mind. We usually would have one or
more specific predefined groups we are seeking. For instance, have you ever run into people in a
mall or on the street who are carrying a clipboard and who are stopping various people and
asking if they could interview them? Most likely they are conducting a purposive sample (and
most likely they are engaged in market research). They might be looking for females between
30-40 years old. They size up the people passing by and anyone who looks to be in that category
they stop to ask if they will participate. One of the first things they are likely to do is verify that
the respondent does in fact meet the criteria for being in the sample. Purposive sampling can be
very useful for situations where you need to reach a targeted sample quickly and where sampling
for proportionality is not the primary concern. With a purposive sample, you are likely to get the
opinions of your target population, but you are also likely to overweight subgroups in your
population that are more readily accessible.

ii) Judgment Sampling

In this method of sampling, the researcher selects individuals based on his/her own judgment. No
matter how objective one tries to be, it is impossible to say how representative such a sample is.

iii) Snowballing/Networking

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Snowballing is a method where identified study subjects recruit future subjects from among their
acquaintances. In this method of sampling, once a case has been identified, he/she is asked to
name all other people they know with the characteristics of interest.
The sample therefore appears to grow like a rolling snowball. This is a useful tool for increasing
the number of participants. This method is particularly useful for the identification of people
with rare characteristics or for hidden populations such as drug users, sex workers. Its success
however, depends on the initial contacts and connections made. It is important therefore to
identify the most credible persons initially. Snowball subjects are subject to numerous biases as
they are not selected from a sampling frame.

iii) The convenient sample

A convenience sample results when the more convenient elementary units are chosen from a
population for observation. These samples may be convenient in terms of accessibility.

iv) Accidental or Haphazard Sampling

One of the most common methods of sampling goes under the various titles listed here. In this
category we could include the interviews conducted frequently by television news programs to
get a quick (although non-representative) reading of public opinion. In many research contexts,
we sample simply by asking for volunteers. Clearly, the problem with all of these types of
samples is that we have no evidence that they are representative of the populations we are
interested in generalizing our findings to.

Exclusion and Inclusion Criteria in Sample Selection

Inclusion criteria refer to a set of standards that are used to determine whether a subject may be
or may not be allowed to participate in a research study. The standards are usually set out before
a study or review. In any research, a researcher has to develop a series of inclusion and exclusion
criteria to fit in his/her research. This is usually done in line with the research objective, research
questions, study variables, study designs or the study time frame.

Researchers should be cautious of any bias they might introduce into the research process in the
name of inclusion or exclusion criteria. For example, if one is conducting a research on linguistic
aspects in a certain language, limiting the review of literature to studies in English may miss
important studies published in other languages that may contain the same information. Thus, all
decisions taken to include or exclude certain studies or groups of studies should be documented
to ensure that a systematic process has been followed.

Inclusion criteria help to identify suitable participants for a particular study. In most cases,
Inclusion criteria may include gender, age, level of education, geographical location, and other
shared characteristics of a study population. For example, researchers in a study of medicines for
high blood pressure would enroll only people who have high blood pressure. An inclusion
criterion for this study would be having the diagnosis of high blood pressure.
An exclusion criterion on the hand is applied to subjects who generally meet the inclusion
criteria but must be excluded because they cannot complete the study or possess unique

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characteristics that may confound the results. For example, if one is studying obesity among
children, it may be necessary to exclude subjects that are below a certain age or suffer other
multiple health complications. Again, if the ability to walk fast for two hours none stop is an
important dependent variable of the study, then subjects who cannot walk or who can walk less
than two hours may be excluded.
An important ethical consideration is the willingness of the subject to participate. In the instance
of a study of obesity among children, parental permission must be obtained or the subject must
be excluded. Also, withholding one treatment to evaluate another may pose a difficult ethical
consideration. The exclusion criteria, considering all of the above, may result in sampling
guidelines that exclude children who are less than 2 or more than 15 years of age, are not on
medication that affects muscle tone, can walk less than one hour, and whose parents will agree to
allow them to participate.

ERRORS AND BIASES IN RESEARCH

‘Biases in research occur either due to sampling or human errors’ examine this statement
(23.3 marks)

Discuss the causes of errors and biases in research, giving suggestions of how they can be
minimized (23.3 marks)

ERRORS AND BIASES IN RESEARCH

Biases in research occur either due to sampling or human errors.

1. Non-Sampling Errors
These refer to statistical errors caused by human error to which a specific statistical analysis is
exposed. These errors can include, but are not limited to, data entry errors, biased questions in a
questionnaire, biased processing/decision making, inappropriate analysis conclusions and false
information provided by respondents.
Non-sampling error therefore means the deviations from the true value that are not a function of
the sample chosen, including various systematic errors and any random errors that are not due to
sampling. These errors can include: low response rates; the use of poor or faulty instruments and
equipment; data entry errors, biased questions in a questionnaire, and biased processing of data
analysis; inappropriate analysis conclusions and false information provided by respondents.
Non-sampling errors are much harder to quantify than sampling errors.

2. Sampling Error and Bias

Sampling error occur if the sample is NOT representative of the study population. Sampling
error comprises the differences between the sample and the population that are due solely to the
particular units that happen to have been selected.

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For example, suppose that a sample of 100 African women are measured and are all found to be
taller than one and a half metres. It is very clear even without any statistical prove that this would
be a highly unrepresentative sample leading to invalid conclusions.
This is a very unlikely occurrence because naturally such measurements are widely distributed
among the population. This is a very obvious error that can be detected very easily. The more
dangerous error is the less obvious sampling error against which nature offers very little
protection. An example would be like a sample in which the average height is overstated by only
one centimetre or two rather than one metre foot which is more obvious. It is the unobvious error
that is of much concern in research.
There are two basic causes of sampling error. One is chance: That is the error that occurs just
because of bad luck. Unusual units in a population do exist and there is always a possibility that
an abnormally large number of them will be chosen. In a random sample, some individuals with
very high measurements of the characteristics of interest may be randomly selected. For
example, in a sample of 20 households, 3 of them may have unusually large number of members
(over 15) whereas the rest have between 2-5 members. The 3 large households will make the
resulting household unusually high and therefore invalid. The average household size with these
three extremes removed will be much less and representative of the study population. The main
protection against this kind of error is to use a large enough sample.
The second cause of sampling error is sampling bias. Sampling bias occurs if the sample is not
representative of the study population that is the individuals in the sample differ systematically
from the study population. Sampling bias is usually the result of a poor sampling plan. There is a
tendency to favour the selection of units that have particular characteristics. For example, use of
volunteers in a study may mean that such people are interested in the research topic, perhaps
more so than the study population from which they come. Similarly, hospital cases may be more
severely ill than cases in the community.

3. Sampling bias can occur even in random sampling

If the sampling frame is not a full list of the study population, one may obtain biased results. For
example, using telephone directory entries as the sampling frame would lead to a biased sample
consisting of only those who have telephones. Those people with telephones may be different
from those without telephones.
It may be difficult to locate certain people for interviews.
Some of the people may refuse to be interviewed or participate in the study. Nonresponse rates
could bias the study findings because the people who refuse to participate in the study may be
different from those who participate. A response rate of above 80% is acceptable. If the response
rate is high (below 80%), the researcher may have obtain the demographic characteristics of the
non-respondents or a random sample of them and investigate whether they differ substantially
from the participants and thus introducing bias in the results.

SAMPLING - CASE STUDY ONE

You intend to conduct a study to investigate the “Perceptions of HIV-infected clients on the
quality of health services offered to them at a Health Facility in Nairobi”. The total numbers of
the clients who visit this clinic are 100 according to the attendance register at the facility. You
have decided on a random sample of 20 clients whom you intend to interview. The Table below
contains the list of the study population.

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Explain the procedure you would use to:
1. Systematically select the 20 clients. List the clients (by numbers from the table below), the
clients in the study sample
2. Explain how you would select 20 clients from the table below using simple random sampling.
3. Explain why simple random sampling technique may provide a more representative sample
than systematic sampling in this context.

Attendance list of client attending the health facility

1 26 51 76
2 27 52 77
3 28 53 78
4 29 54 79
5 30 55 80
6 31 56 81
7 32 57 82
8 33 58 83
9 34 59 84
10 35 60 85
11 36 61 86
12 37 62 87
13 38 63 88
14 39 64 89
15 40 65 90
16 41 66 91
17 42 67 92
18 43 68 93
19 44 69 94
20 45 70 95
21 46 71 96
22 47 72 97
23 48 73 98
24 49 74 99
25 50 75 100

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SAMPLING - CASE STUDY TWO
A study was conducted on the Determinants of malnutrition among women of reproductive age
in Kibera slum Nairobi.
The objectives of the study were:
 To establish the demographic and socio-economic status of the women of reproductive
age living in Kibera slum
 To determine the prevalence of malnutrition among the women of reproductive age living
in Kibera slum
 To assess the dietary intake of the women of reproductive age living in Kibera slum

Study design
A cross-sectional analytical study design was used.

Sample size
The sample size was 385 women of reproductive age.

Sampling Procedure
Sampling of the study population was conducted by visiting any households that were easily
accessible and if a woman of reproductive age was found in the household and willing to
participate in the study then she was interviewed.

Response Rate
A total of 500 women of reproductive age were requested to participate in the study out of which
250 were willing to participate in the study, resulting in a RESPONSE RATE of 50%.

Questions
a) Identify and explain the biases in this study
b) Give suggestions on how these biases could have been minimized to enhance the validity of
the research findings.

TOPIC SUMMARY

POPULATION AND SAMPLING SUMMARY

1 OBJECTIVES
 Differentiate between target and accessible population
 Explain the qualities of an effective study population
 Identify a study population.
 Elucidate the rationale for sampling in research.  Explain the criteria for the selection of
study population and sampling techniques.

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 Select appropriate sampling techniques for different types of studies.
 Explicate and discuss how to minimize sampling error.

2 CONTENT

 Definition of a study population

 Types of Population
 Importance of defining a study population
 Qualities of an effective study population
 How to select a study population
 Delimiting a study population
 Study (target) population
 Sampling
 Errors and biases in research

3 POPULATIONS IN RESARCH

 A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the

main focus of a scientific query.
 A research population is also known as a well - defined collection of individuals or
objects known to have similar characteristics.

4 TYPES OF POPULATION IN RESEARCH

There are two types of a study population - target and accessible.

 Target Population: Consists of all members of a people or objects to which we

generalize the results of our investigations.
 Accessible Population: The population in research to which the researchers can apply
their conclusions.

5 HOW TO IDENTIFY A STUDY POPULATION

The researcher should bear the following in mind while identifying a study population:

 The research title

 Identify the largest population which can relevantly be used as respondents in addressing
the research questions and meeting the specific objectives.
 The characteristics of the study population
 Suitability of the potential study population

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6 QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE STUDY POPULATION
Kombo and Tromp (1996) identify the following as the qualities of an effective study population

 Diversity
 Representative
 Accessibility
 Knowledgeable

7 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OFSAMPLING?

The purpose of sampling is to secure a representative group which will enable the researcher to
gain formation about the population.

SAMPLING METHODS

Random/Probability Sampling: Include the following methods:

1) Simple Random Sampling. This requires a pre - existing sampling frame with all the sampling
units sequentially numbered.

 The sample is then selected by use of random numbers.

 This method results in a sample that is truly representative.
 This method is limited by the existence of a complete sampling frame.

2) Systematic random Sampling:

 A systematic random sample is obtained by selecting the first unit on a random basis and
choosing additional elementary units at evenly spaced intervals until the desired number
of units is obtained.
 This method does not require the pre - existence of a complete and numbered sampling
frame.

3) Stratified sampling: Is obtained by independently selecting a separate simple random sample

from each population stratum.

 It ensures that all groups or strata are included in the sample and in this is respective may
be more representative than a simple random sample
 When the number of subjects from each stratum is selected proportional to the size of the
population, then this is referred to as proportional stratified sampling
 The strata should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

4) Cluster sampling:

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  A cluster sample is obtained by selecting clusters (units linked to one another) from the
population on the basis of simple random sampling.
 Once the clusters are selected, then the study subjects are all selected or a random sample
is selected.
 This method is convenient and saves on resources and time.
 It is useful for community - based studies
 Major limitation is that the clusters may not be homogenous and thus the sample size
may be doubled because of the design effect.

5) Multi - stage sampling:

 This involves the use of a combination of the random sampling methods already
discussed.
 This sampling strategy entails working from a large to progressively smaller sampling
frames
 This method is used many time is in real situations, rather than a single method of
sampling.

Non – Random Sampling Methods

Non - random sampling is generally not recommended for quantitative studies because they do
not allow for some statistical analysis which assumes a random sample. They are generally
recommended for qualitative studies. There is a variety of non - random sampling methods.

a) Purposive Sampling: Done with a purpose in mind. Usually the researcher would have
one or more specific predefined groups he/she is seeking information from.
b) Judgment Sampling: The researcher selects individuals based on his/her own
judgement.
c) Snowballing/Networking: Once a case has been identified, he/she is asked to name all
other people they know with the characteristics of interest. This method is useful for the
identification of people with rare characteristics or for hidden populations such as drug
users, sex workers.
d) The Convenient Sample: involves the selection of more convenient units from a
population for observation.
e) Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience Sampling: Includes a variety of methods such
as the use of volunteers or interviewing people as you bump into them in the streets

Many other methods of non - random sampling are conducted in research. This list is not
exhaustive.

CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF SAMPLING METHODS

 The type of study to be conducted; qualitative or quantitative

 The objectives of the study
 The time and resources available to conduct the study

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  Logistical considerations; the feasibility of using certain methods depending on the
prevailing circumstances.

SUMMARY

 Sampling is important to secure a representative group from which research findings can
be generalized to the population the group comes from.

 Sampling procedures are categorized into random/probability techniques and non -

random/non - probability techniques.
 Random sampling is appropriate for quantitative studies and allows for use of inferential
statistics in data analysis.
 No - random sampling is appropriate for qualitative studies as they do not allow for the
use of inferential statistics.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Explain the term “Randomization” and how it is used in the selection of study subjects.
Look for a Table of Random Numbers from statistics books or any other source and
practice how to use the Table to select study subjects using simple random sampling
technique.
2. Discuss the causes of sampling bias giving suggestions of how it can be minimized.
3. Discuss why it may be necessary to select study subjects by proportional stratified
sampling technique.
4. Explain the rationale for using non-random samples in research.
5. What are the sources of error in research?

TOPIC ASSESSMENT

1. Differentiate between target and accessible population

2. Briefly explain the qualities of an effective study population
3. Explain how you would go about identifying your study population
4. Differentiate between the following:

WEEK EIGHT
Conceptual Framework/ Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework

It is a model that shows the interrelatedness of the independent and dependent variables of the study. This
is either presented graphically or diagrammatically. The purpose of conceptual framework is to enable the
reader to quickly see the proposed relationships between the variables.
Theoretical framework

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It explains the theories in which your study is grounded. One should describe the theory using the latest
literature; show how the theory has evolved. Consider presenting it as follows:
 Show who the proponent of the theory is
 Show the year the theory was developed
 Explain what the theory is about
 Critique the theory by discussing its strengths and limitations/ weaknesses.
 Explain why despite its weaknesses you have chosen it for the study and show how it applies
(how the variables in the theory are interacting with the variables in your study) to your study.

MEANING OF AND PURPOSE RESEARCH

DESIGN
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design is the overall plan for how to obtain answers to the questions being studied. It
addresses the following questions:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being conducted?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
In brief, the research design must contain the following:
a) A clear statement of the research problem.
b) Procedures and techniques to be used in gathering information.
c) The population to be studied and
d) The methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
3.1.2 Functions and Features of Research Design

3.2 SELECTING THE RESEARCH DESIGN (25 minutes)

The choice of an appropriate research design is dependent on the research purpose, which may be
grouped into the following categories. Other than the exploratory, speculative, descriptive, explanatory
which were identified in topic one, this section discusses predictive and evaluative research.

3.2.1Predictive

The purpose of this type of research is to develop a model that predicts the likely course of events given

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particular intervening variables or circumstances. This type of research therefore enables us to predict or
estimate a phenomenon.

3.2.2 Evaluative or experimental studies

The aim of this type of research is to evaluate the impact of something or the experimental unit as
compared to control. The control represents the usual situation while the experimental represents the
manipulated phenomena. For example, evaluating the impact/effects of a 10 weeks aerobic dance exercise
programme on the body composition of clients or evaluating the effect of increasing fertilizer amounts on
crop production.
3.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
There are many different types of research designs that can be categorized into either experimental or
non-experimental research designs. We start by looking at the experimental research designs.

A research design is a strategy for planning and conducting a study. According to this understanding,
research designs are blueprints that guide the planning and implementation of the research (i.e data
collection and analysis). In quantitative research, research designs are specified before conducting
research and cannot be changed once research has started. However, in qualitative research, designs are
more flexible. Researchers are free to change the research design when the research is being carried out.
In selecting a research design, the researcher must be guided by the following major considerations:
a) The main research question
b) Purpose of the research
c) The research paradigm
d) The research methods to be employed to collect and analyze data

USUAL STEPS IN THE SELECTION OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

The following are the usual steps in the selection of a research design. First, the researcher should
consider the type of information needed to answer the main question and specific research questions.
After specifying the type of information needed to answer research questions, the research should identify
an appropriate strategy through which to obtain the required information. In selecting a research design
the researcher should ensure that the proposed methods and analyses are in conformity with the levels of
understanding of potential readers of the final report.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Three basic types of research designs are:
1. Experimental design
2. Quasi-experimental design
3. Survey design

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EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The effects of a programme on the participants can be measured accurately only if the researcher knows
what would have happened without the programme. Because it is not possible for the researcher to
observe what would have happened to the participants themselves if they had not enrolled in the
programme, a group of non-participants in the same population must be identified. The effects of the
programme are then ascertained by comparing the behaviour of the group that is particularly in the
programme (the treatment of the experimental group) with that of the selected group (the control group).
The allocation of individuals to the experimental and control groups should be at “random”. Incorporation
of randomization into the design is so important that designs are categorized according to the way in
which the subjects are selected: random assignment (classified as an experimental design) and non-
random assignment (classified as a quasi-experimental design).
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Experimental designs are used to study cause and effect relationships among two or more variables. The
main difference between true experimental designs and other designs is the fact that research units are
assigned to the treatment and control conditions at random.
The main purpose of experimental research is to study casual links; to determine whether a given variable
x has an effect on another variable y, or whether changes in one variable produce changes in another
variable.
The three essential elements of an experimental design are:
1. Randomization – The researcher assigns participants to different groups.
2. Manipulation – the researcher does something at least to some of the participants in the research.
3. Control – the researcher introduces one or more controls over the experimental situation.
In experimental studies one group, the experimental or treatment group, receive the treatment the other
group; a control group receives a neutral treatment. The two groups are compared before the treatment
using a pre-test. After the treatment, a post-test is administered to the two groups.
This situation is presented diagrammatically below:
Before
After
Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experimental group

Randomly selected
Pre-test Post-test
Control group

According to Frey, Botan, Friedman & Kreps (1996, p.156) three requirements are necessary for
establishing a causal relationship between an independent and dependent variable. All three requirements
are necessary for inferring causality; none is sufficient in and of itself. These are:
1. The independent variable must precede the dependent variable.
2. The independent and dependent variable must be shown to co-vary, or go together.

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 3. The changes observed in the dependent variable must be the results of changes in the independent
variable and not some other unknown variable.
The true experimental designs are the most exact method of establishing cause and effect relationships.
They are called true experimental designs because they provide adequate controls for all sources of
internal validity. The experimental method was developed in the natural sciences where consistent casual
relationships are easy to establish. However, the accumulated experience shows that in the Educational,
causal relationships are difficult to measure and true experimental designs are rarely used.
True experimental designs
The true experimental design is considered the most useful design to demonstrate programme impact if
conditions of randomization in selection of participating units and in the assignment of treatment and
control conditions at random are met. Research units can be individuals (students, teachers, parents etc.),
groups of individuals, institutions, regions etc.
There are three true experimental designs:
I) The pre-test-post-test control group design.
II) The post-test-only control group design; and
III) The Solomon four-group design
The pre-test-post-test control group design
The subjects are randomly divided into two groups. One of these groups receives the treatment. The other
does not. In this design a pre-test is administered to the experimental group before it receives the
treatment. The same pre-test is administered to the control group. At the end of the treatment, a post-test
is administered to both groups. The design is shown below:
The pre-test post-test control group design

Before
After
Pre-test Treatment Post-test
Experimental group

Control group
Pre-test Post-test

For example, if a researcher wants to determine the effectiveness of a technique of teaching Christian
religious education to secondary school students (7th Grade) he should randomly assign students to two
groups; an experimental group and a control group. Both groups should be pre-tested, the new technique
used to teach the experimental group for say a month, and both groups post-tested. Both the pre-tested
means and post-tested means can then be compared by using the T-test to determine if there is any
systematically significant different between them.
The weaknesses of this design are:

 Influence of exposure to books, radio and television programmes;

 In the case of a long period of time between pre and post-test, the students could have naturally
matured; and
 The use of the same test can influence the results.

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You should counteract those influences by keeping the time between tests short, monitoring outside
influences but withholding scores until after the post-test.
The post-test-only control group design
There are circumstances under which a pre-measurement period is not practical. The post-test-only
control group design omits the pre-tested groups altogether. The design is shown below:
The post-test-only control group design

Before After

Experimental group Treatment applied Post-test

Control group Post-test

In this design students and teachers in the pilot and control groups are measured with respect to the
dependent variable during or after the introduction of curriculum materials (the independent variable). For
example, say an investigator wants to determine what the effects are on students’ knowledge of
population concepts of integrating population and family life education in social studies. He/she can
administer a post-test to a random sample of students, who have been exposed to a social studies course
with population and family life education and also to a random sample of students at the same grade level
who have been exposed only to social studies (control group). He/she should then compare the mean post-
test scores of the two groups to find out if there is any statistically significant difference between them,
STRENGTHS
1. Assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups is done randomly. This controls for
selection and morality.
2. No pre-test is given in order to control for simple testing effects.

SOLOMON FOUR-GROUP DESIGN

This design combines the pre-test-post-test control group and the post-test-only control group designs.
This is one of the most powerful designs available for controlling threats to the validity of cause and
effect inferences.
Four groups are randomly selected from the population. Two of these groups receive the treatment and
two groups do not (control groups). One group receiving the treatment and one of the groups not
receiving the treatment are pre-tested. After the treatment all four groups are post-tested.
Figure 5.4: Solomon Four Group Design
E R 01 x 02

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C R 03 x 04
E R x 05
C R 06

MULTIPLE TREATMENT DESIGN

It is sometimes necessary for a researcher to evaluate the effects of two or more treatments. The most
appropriate design for such a study is a multiple treatment design. In such a design, two or more
independent variables are considered. Participants are randomly assigned to different experimental and
control groups. Pre-tests are administered to experimental and control groups. Each experimental group
receives a different treatment. After a specified time, post-tests are given to the experimental and control
groups. Below are two examples of multiple treatment designs.
Example 1
In this design, participants are randomly assigned to two experimental and one control group. A pre-test is
given to the three groups.
Each group undergoes a different treatment. Then a post-test is given to each group. The design is as
shown in the diagram below:

E R 01 x 02
E R 03 x 04
E C 05 x 06
Example 2
In this design, participants are randomly assigned for four groups. The first experiment first group
receives treatment X, the second receives treatment Y and the third receives a combination of treatments
X and Y. the fourth group receives no treatment. Then a post-test is given. The design is diagrammed as
follows:
E R 01 x 02
E R 03 x 04
E R 05 X+y 06
C R 07 08
This design allows the researcher to determine the effectiveness of a treatment when offered separately (X
and Y) and when offered together (X +Y).
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Quasi-experimental designs have been defined as “experiments that have treatments, outcome measures
and experimental units, but do not use random assignment” of subjects. Instead of random selection of
subjects into the experimental and control conditions, already existing groups are selected into the

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conditions. The purpose of a quasi-experimental design is to approximate a true experimental design. In a
quasi-experimental design, subjects are not assigned randomly to conditions, although the independent
variable(s) may be manipulated.
It is not usually possible in Educational research to apply true experimental designs because of the
difficulty of obtaining equivalent group or achieving random assignments of subjects to the two groups.
Even when equivalent groups are selected at the beginning of the research project, different dropouts of
subjects will result in non-equivalent groups during the research project. Besides, in Educational Research
it is sometimes not be feasible to divide intact classes to be divided to provide for random samples.
For situations where it is not feasible or desirable to apply true experimental designs, quasi-experimental
designs are normally used. The distinguishing feature of quasi-experimental design is the subjects are not
randomly selected and assigned to treatment and control groups.
TYPES OF QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
There are three basic designs for quasi-experiments. These are:
1. A non-equivalent control group design.
2. Interrupted time series designs
3. Multiple time series design.
Each of these designs is described briefly below.
1. Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
Non-equivalent control group design retains the idea of a treatment group and a control group, without
random assignment.
PROCEDURE
1. Assign subjects to the treatment and control groups.
2. Administer a pre-test to subjects in the two groups.
3. Apply the intervention (treatment) to the experimental group.
4. Administer post-test to the two groups
STRENGTH
It may be possible to use an existing sample group as experiment and control group.
LIMITATIONS
Since subjects are not assigned to the experimental conditions, the two groups are not equivalent. It is
difficult whether or not causes other than the treatment may have been responsible for differences in the
changes of the two groups.
2. Time-Series Design
Sometimes it is not possible for researchers to provide a control group against which to compare a
treatment group. In this design, a series of pre-tests and post-tests are given to establish intra-group
comparisons.

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 01 02 03 x 04 05 06
The interrupted time-series is used to detect changes in levels and rates.
3. Multiple Time-Series Design
This design combines the non-equivalent control group with the time-series design. This is done by
assigning subjects non-randomly to treatment and control groups and measuring both groups using a
series of pre-tests and post-tests. This design may be diagrammed as follows:

E 0 0 0 0 x 0 0 0 0
C 0 0 0 0 x 0 0 0 0

EX-POSTO FACTO DESIGN

Kerlinger (1970) as quoted by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007) defined as ex post facto research as
that in which the independent variable or variables have already occurred and in which the researcher
starts with the observation of a dependent variable or variables. The researcher then studies the
independent variable or variables in retrospect for their possible relationship to, and effects on, the
dependent variable or variables. The researcher is thus examining retrospectively the effects of a naturally
occurring event on a subsequent outcome with a view to establishing a causal link between them. Some
instances of ex post facto designs correspond to experimental research in reverse, for instead of taking
groups that are equivalent and subjecting them to different treatments so as to bring about differences in
the dependent variables to be measured, an ex post facto experiment begins with groups that are already
different in some respect and searches in retrospect for the factor that brought about the difference.
Kerlinger (1973:379) defines ex-post facto research as “a systematic, empirical inquiry in which the
scientist does not have direct control of the independent variables because their manifestations have
already occurs or because they are inherently not manipulable.” In other words, the research does not
manipulate any variables. The variables occur in the natural setting and the researcher attempts to
determine the relationship and effects that are occurring between the variables.
This design is presented diagrammatically below:

E x 02
C 04
LIMITATIONS
The following are the main limitations of ex-post facto research.
1. Subjects cannot be randomly assigned to treatment and control groups.
2. It is impossible to manipulate the independent variable.
3. Causes are often multiple not single.
Best and Kahn (1989)

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One of the most serious dangers of ex-post facto and causal-comparative research is the post hoc fallacy,
the conclusion that because two factors go together one must be the cause of the other the effect (p.105).

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

Validity refers to the extent to which the results obtained from the analysis of data actually represent the
phenomenon under study. There are two types of validity relating to research design; internal and external
validity.
INTERNAL VALIDITY
A research design has internal validity if the outcome of the research is a function of the phenomenon
being studied rather than other causes not systematically dealt with in the study. Internal validity asks
whether a research study is designed and conducted so that it leads to accurate findings about the
phenomenon being investigated.
A study possesses internal validity if its findings follow in a direct and unproblematic way from its
methods. The results are sustained by the design itself and cannot be explained by other considerations.
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
External validity refers to the degree to which the results of an experiment may be extended to other
samples from the same population and to other populations, (Mason and Bramble, 1997, p.113).
A study has external validity if the cause and effect noted in the study can be generalized beyond the
study, individuals, settings and occasions. External validity asks whether the conclusions from a
particular study can be applied to other people and other contexts.
THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
There are several threats to the validity of inferences regarding cause and effect relationships arising from
experimental and quasi-experimental designs.

THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY

1. History – refers to events which are not part of the experiment that occurs in the environment at
the same time that the experimental variable is being tested which have influenced the results.
Something could be happening alongside (co-varying) in the environment during the time of the
intervention. This problem can be controlled by assessing the effectiveness of a ‘no intervention
condition’ as shown in the following design.

Pre-test Treatment Post-test

Pre-test Post-test

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If something is happening alongside the treatment in the environment, the control group should also show
the unexpected change over time.
2. Testing – testing refers to improved scores on a post-test which are a result of subjects having
taken a pre-test. The effects of taking a pre-test may increase the likelihood that the individual
will do better on a post-test due to the practice effect. Some of the changes observed may be due
to their reactions to being studied. The question is, could the participants have become “test wise”
because of the pre-test?
3. Instrumentation – this refers to the effect of research tools (as in the use of questionnaires,
which have a reactive effect on the subjects). For example, interviewers may change their manner
of collecting data.
4. Selection – this refers to the bias introduced in the choice of subjects or the sample e.g. using
convenience, judgment and other non-probability sampling procedures.
5. Experimental Mortality – In many studies, particularly those that take a long time, some
subjects drop out during the study. If subjects who drop out of a study share common
characteristics, such less motivated, low performers, their absence is likely to have a significant
effect on the results of the study. Since the two groups are no longer equivalent, internal validity
is compromised.
6. Statistical Regression – Refers to the tendency of subjects who score highest on pre-tests to
score lower on a post-tests and subjects who score lowest on pre-tests to score higher on post-
tests.
Research has shown that there is regression towards mediocrity. If extreme individual are chosen
for the study and measured again, the results change.
7. Maturation – this refers to the biological and physical changes in the subjects over time, which
will affect the responses. For example, a pre-test-post-test gain in weight may not be due to the
diet introduced but to natural growth of the subjects. This threat is also called the threat of
independent natural change.
The observed change may be due to people’s maturation ability quite independently of the
intervention. This threat is controlled in the following design.
01 x 02
03 x 04
In this design the change will itself be in both the control and experimental group.

THREATS TO THE EXTERNAL VALIDITY OF DESIGNS

The threats to external validity of a research design are referred to as reaction or interaction
effects, involving the treatment X and some other variable. There are four reactive or interactive
effects of experimental and quasi-experimental designs.

Reactive or interaction Effect of Testing

When the pre-test control group design is used a pretest might increase or the respondent
sensitivity on responsiveness to the experimental variable and thus make the results obtained for
a pretest population unrepresentative of the effects the experimental variable for the unpre-tested
universe from which experimental respondents were selected. Consequently, the effects of the
study may only be generalized to those situations in which the pre-test is administered.

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There are three reactive effects of experimental and quasi-experimental designs.

1. Reactive or Interaction effect of Testing. When the pre-test- post- test control group
design is used, the effects of the study may only be generalized to those situations in
which the pre-test is administered.
2. Interaction of selection and experimental variable. Interaction of selection and the
experimental variable occurs when participants in the study are not entirely representative
of the target population. As a result, the results would not be generalizable to the large
group.
3. Reactive effects of experimental arrangements. These effects occur when findings of the
study may not be directly applicable to the real life setting. Two reactive effects of
experimental arrangement are discussed briefly below.
i. Hawthorne Effect
The team Hawthorne effect refers to any situation in which the experimental conditions are such
that the mere fact that the subject is participating in an experiment or is receiving special
attention tends to improve performance (Borg &Gall, 1983, p.215). For example, in experimental
research, in education, when individuals are aware that they are participating in an experiment
that they are participating in an experiment they may perform better or indifferently. In this case
the behavior of the experimental groups departs from what is considered normal for the target
group.

ii. John Henry Effect

The John Henry Effect refers to a situation often found in educational research in which a control
group performs above its usual average when placed in competition with an experimental group
that is using a new method or procedure that threatens to replace the control procedure.

iii. Multiple-Treatment Inference

When multiple treatments are applied subsequently, subjects are likely to experience cumulative
effects.

COPING WITH THREATS TO INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY OF

EXPERIMENTAL AND QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. To avoid bias in assignment to the experimental and control groups, eligible subjects
should be assigned at random to the two groups
2. To avoid bias in the assessment of final results; the assessor will be blind to the
intervention group
3. To avoid bias in behavior of the participant, the intervention group assignment will not be
known to the participants, i.e. the participant will also be blind

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The survey design is the best design for collecting systematic factual data for decision making
and is an efficient method of descriptive information regarding characteristics of the population
and the current practices and conditions (Kerliner 1073).

A study is also said to be double blind if neither the assessor nor the participants is aware of the
intervention allocations. A study is called single blind if only the assessor or the participant is
aware of the allocations

SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGNS

A survey research is a study in which data are collected from the members of a sample for the
purpose of estimating one or more population parameters (Jaeger, 1998). It deals with the
incidence, distributions and interrelations of educational variables. Its purpose is to describe
specific characteristics of a large group of persons, objects or institutions.

Survey research does not emphasize the diverse aspects of a single case but rather the frequency
or number of answers to the questions by different people. The emphasis therefore shifts from
answers to all questions given an individual (case study) to answers to one question given by all
respondents (survey).

LONGITUDINAL SURVEY is the description of a sample over an extended period of time. It

involves collecting data from a sample at different points in time, in order to study changes or
continuity in sample characteristics (Cohen, 2000). They are where phenomena are studied over
time either continuously or repeatedly. For example, if you want to establish the behavior change
patterns of learners who are taught the HIV-AIDS curriculum then you conduct a survey at
various stages in the learning levels such as Form 1, 2, 3 and 4.

CROSS SECTIONAL SURVEY is a research where data are obtained at one point in time, but
from groups of different ages or at different stages of development. For example, if you are
interested in studying how students’ attitudes towards mathematics changed from standard seven
to form three, you could select a sample of students at each level and administer a questionnaire
to all of them on the same date or within a narrow range of dates.

CORRELATION

Correlation studies are used to describe in quantitative terms the degree to which two or more
variables are related. They involve the collection of data on two or more variables on the same
group of subjects and computing a correlation coefficient. For example, is there a relationship
between the grade obtained in KCPE and the grade obtained in KCSE?

NATURALISTIC DESIGNS

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The designs grew out of the need to study phenomena as they naturally occur in the field. The
goal of a naturalistic study is to understand the phenomena being observed. Naturalistic designs
provide in-depth investigation of individuals, groups or institutions as they naturally occur
(Benson and Michael, 1987, p.54). A major feature of naturalistic designs in the use of human
instruments (the observer) to collect, filter and organize the incoming data. Relatively a small
number of units are studied over a relatively large number of variables and conditions (Isaac and
Michael, 1981).

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), qualitative research differs from the positivist paradigm
in five ways:

1. There are multiple realities

2. It is impossible to separate the researcher from what is being researched.
3. Only hypothesis about individual realities are possible
4. It is impossible to separate cause and effect relationships because of their simultaneous
interaction
5. Inquiry is value bond
The following are the qualitative designs:

1) Case study
2) Phenomenology
3) Ground Theory
4) Biography
5) Ethnography
CASE STUDY

The case study is a way of organizing social data for the purpose of viewing social reality. It
examines a social unit as a whole. The unit may be a person, family, social group, a social
institution or a community. The purpose is to understand the life cycle or an important part of
the life cycle of the unit. A single case study emphasizes analysis in depth (Best and Kahn,
2003:193).

Information sources for case study include

 Public archival records such as actuarial records, political and judicial reports,
government documents and media accounts
 Private archival records such as archives (collections), diaries and letters
 Direct response to data using interviews guides and observation guides

PHENOMENOLOGY

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Patton (1990) observes that the term phenomenology has been widely used until its meaning has
been confused. The term has been viewed as a paradigm (model/pattern/example/standard), a
philosophy (way of life / attitude / thinking / beliefs / values) or a perspective (view point / stand
/ view / perception). Others view the term to mean qualitative methods or naturalistic inquiry. A
phenomenological inquiry focuses on the question, “What is the structure and essence of
experience of this phenomenon for these people?”

From its philosophical origins, in the works of Edmund Husserl, phenomenology is the study of
how people describe things and experience them through their senses. The main focus here is
that “we can only know what we experience” (Patton, 1990:69). Notice that our understanding
comes from our sense (touch, smell, taste, hear etc.) experience of the phenomenon. However,
that experience must be described, explicated (explained / expounded) and interpreted.

For the phenomenologists, there is no separate (or objective) reality for people. What is for them
is what people know, their experiences are and mean. What does this imply? This implies:

 What is important to know is what people experience and how they interpret the world
(Subject matter of phenomenological inquiry)
 The only way for us to really know what another person experiences is to experience it
for ourselves (Methodological)

BIOGRAPHY

A biography study is the study of an individual and her/his experience as told to the researcher or
found in documents and archival materials. Denzin (1989a) defines the biographical method as
the ‘studied use and collection of life documents that describe turning point moments in an
individual’s life.’

Mertens (1998) quoted Yow, (1994) who said that biographers should help the reader understand
the way the individual sees (or saw) herself or himself “the inner struggles and motivation, the
way psychological make-up influenced the subject’s interpersonal relationships, the
interpretation the subject gave to life’s events.”

Biographies generally attempt to unite an individual story with the meaning of the times in which
a person lived. Some biographers are based on oral histories in which the researcher gathers
personal recollections of events, their causes and their effects from an individual or several
individuals. Hence, writing a biography often involves extensive interviewing that could stretch
over years.

GROUND THEORY

Even though Strauss and Corbin who developed the grounded theory came up with three steps to
be followed when analyzing data; the researcher should be sensitive to the non-linear nature of

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qualitative analysis. The researcher actually moves back and forth with the data, analyzing and
then collecting more data and then analyzing some more. The steps rarely occur in a linear
fashion but recur as often as is necessary to reach the appropriate conclusions.

Step 1: Open-coding

It is the part of analysis that pertains specifically to naming and categorizing phenomena through
close examinations of data. Thus, the researcher must take a part an observation, a sentence or a
paragraph and give each discrete incident idea, or event, a name or label that stands for or
represents phenomenon.

Step 2: Axial coding

The researcher puts the parts of the data identified and separated in open coding back together to
make connections between categories. During this phase, the researcher builds a model of the
phenomena that includes the condition under which it occurs (or does not occur), the context, in
which it occurs, the action and interactional strategies that describe the phenomena and
consequences of these actions.

Step 3: Selective coding

This last stage is essential for those researchers who intend to develop a theory from the data. It
involves the process of selecting one main category (the story line) and relating the other
categories to it. The researcher validates the hypothesized relationship with the data available
and fills in categories that need further refinement and development. During this phase analysis,
the first step is to identify the core category or storyline, and then relate the subsidiary categories
to the core through a model or paradigm which includes an explication of the conditions,
strategies and consequences identified in the axial coding phase. The researcher validates the
theory by grounding it in the data; if necessary, the researcher can seek additional data to test the
theory (Mertens, 1998).

ETHNOGRAPHY

The word “ethnos”” is a Greek word for “a people” or “a cultural group”. The focus of an
ethnographic inquiry is therefore the culture (a collection of behavior patterns and beliefs that
constitute standards for deciding what is, what can be, how one feels about it, what to do about it
and how to go about doing it) of a group of people. Thus, the method used by ethnographers is
participant observation. This implies that the researcher is immersed in the culture under study.
For instance, if you want to study the culture of the Abagusii, Akamba, Agikuyu, Abaluhya, Luo,
Nandi etc. people then you have to lie with them, participate in their day to day activities. In
other words, be a part of them.

QUALITIES OF GOOD QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

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Qualitative research has been criticized by quantitative researchers for its lack of validity and
reliability. Qualitative researchers such as Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Creswell and Miller
(1997) have proposed naturalist’s alternatives that parallel traditional quantitative approaches to
validity and reliability. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985, p. 300), the following terms are
the naturalist’s equivalents for internal validity, external validity, reliability and objectivity:
credibility, transferability, dependability and confirm ability. Each of these terms is described
briefly below.

Credibility

This is the extent to which the findings of inquiry are considered to be believable. Several
techniques are used to ensure the credibility of qualitative research. These include prolonged
engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, peer debriefing and member checking and
audit trial (Lincoln and Guba, 1985).

i. Prolonged engagement and persistent observation involves investing a sufficient amount

of time to build trust, with participants, understanding their culture and test for
misinformation.
ii. Triangulation involves the use of numerous methods of data collection and sources.
There are three types of triangulation: methodological triangulation, source triangulation
and investor triangulation. Methodological triangulation is applied when the researcher
uses two or more methods of data collection to measure variables. For example, a
questionnaire could be supplemented with in-depth interview, observation and existing
records
Source triangulation is utilized when comparing the information which is given by the
source at different times and in different situations. For example the information given by
the head teacher during the informal conversation could be compared with the
information he or she gives the actual interview.

Investigator triangulation is applied when two or more researchers are used to study the
same subject. During the study, the researchers regularly exchange opinions of what they
see or hear.

iii. Peer debriefing involves testing findings with disinterested parties and individuals
(Lincoln and Guba, 1985). The role of the peer debriefed is that of a “devil’s advocate,
(Lincoln and Guba, 1985) a person who listens to the researcher’s findings and asks hard
questions about the methods used and interpretations. Member checking involves the
soliciting of informants’ views of the credibility of the findings and interpretations
(Lincoln and Guba, 1985).
iv. Audit trial is made by making all documents and artifacts relating to the study readily
accessible to outside audits with the exception of those documents that could reveal the
true identity of the people or institutions participating in the study.

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 Transferability is the extent to which the findings can be transferred to other contexts
because of shared characteristics. Transferability is ensured by rich, thick descriptions.
Dependability

This refers to the degree to which the reader can be convinced that the findings indeed occur as
the researcher says they did. (Blanche and Durrheim, 2002, p. 64). Dependability is achieved by
rich, thick descriptions that show how certain events and views are rooted in and develop out of
interaction among people in the natural setting.

Coherence

Coherence refers to the extent to which the various elements of the design fit together within the
framework provided by the research paradigm (Blanche and Burrheim, 2002, p.60).

THREATS TO VALIDITY IN QUALITATIVE DESIGN

Lincoln and Guba (1995) have presented three possible threats to the validity of qualitative
research designs: these are reactivity, respondent biases and researcher biases.

Reactivity: the presence of a researcher may influence the behavior of people involved in the
study or interfere with its setting.

Respondent Biases: This may occur when respondents give answers that they think the
researcher wants.

Researcher Biases: The researchers’ assumptions and preconceptions sometimes affect the way,
he/she conducts research in terms of the way he/she samples respondents, the kinds of questions
he/she asks and how he/she collects and analyses data.

WEEK EIGHT
SAMPLING METHODS
There are two main ways to select a sample:

1. Probability sampling
2. Non – probability sampling

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 1.) Probability sampling
This is the process of drawing a portion of a population so that each member of the
target population has a known chance of being selected in the sample.

Types of probability sampling techniques:

a) Simple Random Sampling

This method involves giving a number to every subject or member of the
population, placing the numbers in a container and then picking any number at
random. To use this method, one must have a complete list of the target population.

b) Systematic Random Sampling

This method involves selecting every nth sampling unit from a list of all members
of the population e.g. to select 40 students from a population of 400, a researcher
first divides the population by the number needed (400/40=10). He/ she then
selects a number smaller than 10. Then starting (e.g.3), he/she selcts every 10th
student from the list of students.

c) Stratified Random Sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into two or more strata (subgroups),
and then a given number of subjects (individuals) are randomly selected from each
population subgroup. The subgroups can be boys or girls, rural or urban etc. the
number selected from each subgroup should be proportional to the number of
subjects in the subgroup.

d) Multi-stage Random Sampling

This involves random sampling at each stage in the sampling process e.g.
supposing that one wants to select secondary schools for study in Kenya. A typical
multi-stage sampling would be as follows:

I) Randomly select a given number of provinces from the list of all

provinces.
II) Randomly select from within each chosen province schools from the list
of all schools of the defined type.
III) Randomly select from within each chosen school individuals from the list
of all individuals of the defined type.
e) Cluster sampling

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This is sampling in which groups, and not individuals, are randomly selected.
Examples of clusters include schools, classes, towns etc. for example, instead of
randomly selecting Form 1 students, one could select Form 1 classrooms and use
all students in each classroom.

2) Non – probability sampling techniques

Non-probability sampling is used when the researcher is not interested in selecting

a sample that is representative of the population. It is mainly used in qualitative
research designs.

Types of non-probability sampling techniques:

a) Purposive sampling/ judgement sampling

In this sampling, the researcher purposively chooses the subjects that have the
required information with respect to the objectives of his/her study. It is sampling
that involves selection of cases that manifest the phenomenon of interest to the
researcher.

b) Quota sampling
This technique is similar to stratified random sampling and the objectives is to
include various groups or quotas of the population in the study based on some
criteria e.g. untrained teachers, graduate teachers. PI teachers. The researcher
purposively selects subjects ti fit in the quotas identified

c) Convenience sampling/ accidental sampling

It involves selecting units or subjects that are convenient to the researcher. In most
cases, the units selected are those which are easy to reach and are willing to take
part in the study.

d) Snowball sampling
In this method, initial subjects with the desired characteristics are identified using
purposeful sampling technique. The identified subjects then name others that they
know have the required characteristics until the researcher get the number of cases
he/ she requires.

3. Measurement Design

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This stage involves the construction of research instruments. Research instruments
are the tools the researcher uses to collect data in order to answer the research
questions.

4. Data Collection

QUANTITATIVE DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES

Administering Questionnaires

There are three main methods of administering questionnaire to respondents: self-

administered questionnaires, by staff interview and by telephone. Questionnaires
may be administered to a group of respondents gathered at the same place and at
the same time. During fieldwork you can deliver questionnaires to teachers and
leave them to the teachers to complete and then pick them later. When this method
is used, the completion rate is very high.

The second approach is to mail questionnaires to the respondents. The

questionnaire should be accompanied by a letter of explanation and a self-
addressed stamped envelope for returning the questionnaire. In this method, the
return rate is low. It is advisable to send non-respondents a new copy of the
questionnaire. If funds are available, interviewers are sent to ask the subjects
questions orally and record respondents’ answers, and if the respondents have
telephones, it is possible for you to get their responses to questionnaire items by
phone.

1. Captive Group

A captive group is as “an assembly of people that the researcher has enough
control to allow for completion of questionnaires (Kelly, 1999). In education, a
captive group may be obtained by administering the questionnaire to students in
each class. This method has a very high response rate.

2. In-Person Interview

In this method the interviewer reads the questionnaire verbatim and the answers
are recorded either mechanically or in writing by the interviewer.

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PROCEDURE FOR INTERVIEWING

1. Introduce yourself to the respondent(s) avoiding titles unless it is necessary.

Tell him/her who you are and where you work.

2. Explain to the respondent(s) the purpose of the study and how it will
contribute to the improvement of educational practices in the country.
Assure him that the information he provides will be treated confidentially.

3. Be friendly and make the respondent comfortable and relaxed in your

presence.

4. Ask your questions: probe the respondent to obtain more data.

5. Avoid making negative comments and criticisms.

6. Avoid negative facial expressions like frowning.

7. Avoid interrupting the flow of information when the respondent is talking.

8. Interview the respondent in a place with minimum disruptions from the

environment.

9. Ask your questions simply and in a friendly manner.

10.Listen carefully to the answers.

11.Never hint either by specific comment or non-verbal clues to suggest a

particular response.

12.In case, you apprehend that the informant is not giving you the correct
information, cross examine him. If sensitive questions are to be asked,
remind the respondents that the answers will be held in strict confidence.

13.Write down the answers. Interact with the respondents as an equal.

14.At the end of the interview thank the informant.

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES

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Collection Procedures

Qualitative researchers normally collect data using unstructured (open-ended)

interviewing, participant observation and behavior observation. Qualitative
researchers use in-depth interview or unstructured interview. Through this method
you will get the person you are interviewing to talk to you in some depth about
his/her feelings or experiences. If you intend to tape record or video tape the
interview, get the consent of the interviewee.

To Achieve Quality Fieldwork

Gaining Access

Get permission to conduct research. Do not convert (alter / change) research. Make
your interest known. Overt role gives you great access. Remain passionate, be
friendly.

In a face to face unstructured interview, some questions are specified, but the
wording of subsequent questions depends on the skill of the interviewer.
Interviewers are expected to understand the main research question and sub
questions and the study population well enough that they can cue prompts and
probe for certain information.

Probing

In an in-depth interview the interviewer probes the respondent to obtain certain

additional information. According to Nachmias (1992 p.230), “probes have two
major functions: they motivate the respondent to elaborate the answer or to explain
the reasons behind the answer and they help focus the conversation on the specific
topic of the interview.

An interview should last from 20 minutes to one hour and a half. Start the
interview with a non-threatening open-ended question to put the interviewee at
ease and get him/her talking.

Seidman (1991) has proposed the following guidelines for conducting an

interview:

 Listen more, talk less

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  Follow up on what the participant says.

 Ask questions when you do not understand.

 Ask to hear more about a subject.

 Explore, do not probe.

 Avoid leading questions.

 Ask open-ended questions which do not presume an answer.

 Follow up and do not interrupt.

 Keep participants focused and ask for concrete details.

 Ask participants to rephrase or reconstruct.

 Do not reinforce the participants’ response.

 Tolerate silence and allow the interviewee to be thoughtful.

Interviewer Manual

An interviewer manual for use during the survey should be developed during the
preparation of an interviewer guide. The manual usually consists of the following
items:-

1. Detailed instructions regarding selection of the subjects.

2. Special instructions regarding each question in the questionnaire.

3. Guidance on how to deal with unusual situations.

4. Guidance on when and how completed questionnaires should be submitted

for data processing or analysis.

Training of interviewers

The training of interviewers is normally carried out by one of the researchers. The
interviewers and researcher should go over all questions in the interview guide.
This should be followed by practical exercises. The practical activity usually

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consists of one interviewer administrating the interview guide to another
interviewer while the researcher and other interviewers look on followed by an
evaluation and discussion of the interview by the whole group.

After the initial training, the interviewers should try out interviews with people
from the target population in the presence of the researcher. This should be
followed by detailed critical evaluation and discussion of each interview or a series
of interviews.

Procedure for Interviewing

1. Introduce yourself to the respondent(s) avoiding titles unless it is necessary.

Tell him/her who you are and where you work.

2. Explain to the respondents the purpose of the study and how it will
contribute to the improvement of educational practices in the country.
Assure him that the information he provides will be treated confidentially.

3. Be friendly and make the respondent feel comfortable and relaxed in your
presence.

4. Ask your questions; probe the respondent to obtain more data.

5. Avoid making negative comments and criticisms.

6. Avoid negative facial expressions like frowning.

7. Avoid interrupting the flow of information when the respondent is talking.

8. Interview the respondents in a place with minimum disruptions from the

environment.

9. Ak your questions simply in a friendly manner.

10.Listen carefully to the answers.

11.Never hint either specific comments or non-verbal clues to suggest particular

responses.

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 12.In case, you apprehend that the informant is not giving you correct
information, cross examine him. If sensitive questions are to be asked,
remind the respondent that answers will be eld in strict confidence.

13.Write down the answers. Interact with the respondent as an equal.

14.At the end of the interview, thank the informant.

Disadvantages

a) It is more expensive than questionnaire and tests.

b) It is time consuming.

Observation

Observation takes place while things are actually happening. In qualitative

research, observation takes the form of participant observation. You should make
field notes.

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

The researcher’s role varies from that of a passive viewer to an active participant.
He/she can play the following roles depending on the objectives of the research
and the social setting.

The researcher can:

a) Participate in the work and life of a group.

b) Sit unobtrusively taking notes.

During observation, the researcher should write down observations in this form of
a field notes and diagrams.

He should also take photographs and pictures and collect documents and artifacts
for analysis.

The following are potential limitations of observational methods.

1. Observer bias. Observer bias or error occurs due to the background,

expectations or perceptions of the observer.

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 2. Contamination. This occurs when the observer knows the expected
outcomes and which groups are experimental or control.

3. Halo effect. This “occurs when the observer allows an initial impression
about one aspect of a person or group to influence observations on other
aspects” (McMillian, 1992, p.132).

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

Analyze materials such as photographs, videos, films, memos, letters, diaries,

clinical card records, official documents produced by…?

DATA COLLECTION

Go to where their subjects are and spend time with them in their territory; their
school. These are the places where the subjects do what they normally do.
Encourage the subjects to talk. The research should unobtrusively keep a written
record of what happens as well as collect other forms of descriptive data. They
may participate in their activities.

Barber, Forbes and Fortune (1998, p.34) have recommended the following steps
for the collection of data through participant observation.

1. Make certain of a smooth entry into the study setting by using a good
excuse, a common place role or a friend from inside the study setting.

2. Gain familiarity with the area, the topic of study and the moves of the people
in the study prior to entry into the setting.

3. Practice methods of quick data recording prior to entry.

4. Analyze the setting and try to identify the times and locations where there is
greatest potential of observing the target events.

5. Schedule daily data review, editing, and coding periods so that the data will
not grow old and the circumstances in which they were gathered will not be
forgotten.

6. Double check sources and data in all your field notes.

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 7. Conduct informal data analysis while still collecting data such that you can
refine your data collecting strategy.

Bogdan & Biklen (1998, p.81) have provided the following suggestions to make
your first days in the field less painful:

1. Do not take what happens in the field personally.

2. Set up your first visit so someone is there to introduce you.

3. Do not try to accomplish too much the first few days.

4. Remain relatively passive. Show interest and enthusiasm for what you are
learning, but do not ask a lot of specific questions.

5. Be friendly. As you are introduced to people, smile and be polite.

COLLECTION

As you collect data you should continually ask questions in order to unlock a more
comprehensive understanding of what is being studied. Why are…?

The observer may play the following roles:

 Be the complete observer.

 Complete involvement at the site. However, too much participation can lead
to the researcher getting so involved and active with the subjects.

 Establish rapport.

Triangulation is the use of multiple methods, investigators and sources of

information in order to crosscheck the validity and credibility of the information.
Triangulation includes the following methods:

 Comparing the statements of two or three different informants, to see if they

have basic agreement about the facts.

 Comparing informants’ statements with actual observation.

 Comparing informants’ statement with written sources.

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  Comparing different investigators findings.

Each time we find discrepancies through the process of triangulation, we should

look for more information in order to verify which of the conflicting sources give
us the more valid and credible information. (International Programme for
Elimination of Child Labor, 1995, p.48)

Data Collection Instruments

Here we will discuss the instruments and methods for collecting data from the
sample. The commonly used data collection instruments are the following:

For Quantitative Data Collection

a) Questionnaire

i. Structured Interview Guide

ii. Structured Observation Guide
b) Tests

c) Likert Scale/ Rating Scale.

For Qualitative Data Collection

a) Unstructured Interview Guide

b) Unstructured Observation Guide

c) Focused Group Discussion Guide

d) Document Analysis Guide

a) Questionnaire

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A questionnaire is a carefully designed instrument (written, typed or printed) for
collecting data directly from people (respondents). A typical questionnaire consists
of questions and statements. Questionnaires are widely used to obtain enquiries
(questions / investigations / analysis / requests for information) concerning
attitudes and opinions.

Types or forms of questionnaires

i) Unstructured or open-ended questionnaire

This question form permits respondents to answer freely and fully the
question. The respondent has complete freedom to answer as he/she chooses.

ii) Structured or Closed-ended questionnaire

These questions give the respondent choice from which to select an answer. It
consists of prepared list of questions and a choice of possible answers.

iii) Pictorial questionnaire

Here drawings or photographs replace written statements from which to choose

answers, and the directions may be given orally or written. It is particularly
suitable for gathering data from children and adults with limited reading ability.

Administering Questionnaires

1) Direct delivery to the respondents

This is where a researcher goes to the field, sample and distributes the instruments
personally to the participants.

2) Mailing through the post office

Questionnaire can also be sent to participants through post office. The participant
will fill in and send it back to the searcher.

3) E-mail
The researcher can also send the questionnaire using electronic mail. When the
respondent finish filling it, he/she will send it back through the same E-mail
Address

b) Interview

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An interview is a conversation in which one person, the interviewer, seeks
responses for a particular purpose from another person, the interviewee. The
interviewer asks questions intended to lead the respondent towards giving data to
meet the study objectives. An interview guide (used in qualitative research) is a
general plan that the interviewer follows. It is a list of questions or topics that the
interviewer intends to explore during each interview. In quantitative research it is
called interview schedule. Just like a questionnaire, an interview can be structured
or unstructured.

Structured Interview Guide

Structured Interview guide is an instrument used during data collection in which

the researcher reads the items as they are without changing or expounding on the
items. A questionnaire can be used as a structured interview guide when the
researcher fills the information while the respondent gives the responses.

In-depth Interview Guide

An in-depth interview guide is a research instrument that is used to collect detail

information by way of probing further and further until “no stone is left un turn.” It
is flexible because the researcher can make clarification, expound on the items,
change the items need arise.

Administering an Interview Guides

1. Face-to-face interview: This is a method where the interviewer sits with the
interviewee and asked questions concerning the issues being studied
following the items in the interview guides.
2. Telephone interview: This is a method where the interviewer uses the
telephone to interview the respondents without going physically to the field.
Types of questions in a questionnaire (or interview)

A typical questionnaire has four types of questions:

i) Demographic questions-These seek background information about the

respondent’s e.g.

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Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]

Age: 20 to 25 [ ] 26 to 30 [ ]

Level of education

Marital status

Occupation

ii) Self-perception questions- These questions try to determine the

respondent’s evaluation of his/her behaviour in relation to others and also
his evaluation of others E.g.

 How do you rate your ability to handle stress?

 Are all teachers in your school conversant with authentic assessment
methods?
Yes [ ] No [ ] I do not know [ ]

iii) Information questions – These questions seek to find out the respondent’s
knowledge of an area of concern to the researcher. For Example:

 Which year was Starehe Boys established?

 What is the number of students enrolled at Starehe Boys?
 How many teachers are at Starehe Boys?
iv) Opinion and attitude questions – These seek information about the
respondent’s attitudes, beliefs and feelings relating to an area of study.
E.g.

Please rate the extent to which you Strongly Agree [SA], Agree [A],
Undecided [U], Disagree [D] or Strongly Disagree [SD] with the statements.

Attitude Items SA A U D SD
1. Teaching Computer Studies is
boring to me.
2. Teaching Computer Studies is fun.
3. It scares me to have to teach
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 Computer Studies.
4. Computer Studies is my most
dreaded subject.

Structured response formats for questionnaire and interviews

The four categories of structured response items are: checklist, inventory ranking
and rating/scaling types.

i. Checklist – A checklist presents a number of options from which the

respondent is expected to check or tick the most relevant response or all
suitable responses.
ii. Inventory – An inventory is used when respondents are required to mark
every option in a particular way, such as “True or false”, “Yes or No”
iii. Ranking – This format requires the respondent to arrange a number of
statements or ideas in order of a given criterion.
iv. Scaling/rating – Here, a number of statements are made and the respondent
is asked to indicate the extent to which he/she agrees with each statement.
An example is the Likert-type attitude scales.
Procedure for Construction of Questionnaires and Structured Interview
Guides

1. Define the objectives of the study.

2. Identify the funds available for the project.

3. Define the population and identify the sampling method.

4. Ascertain the type of questions that will best meet the objectives.

5. Decide which type of results is required.

6. Develop the questionnaire and cover letter.

7. Determine the type of analysis to be performed on each question in the

questionnaire.

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 8. Pilot the questionnaire, revise it if necessary and pilot-test it again.

Guidelines for developing questionnaire items

1. Eliminate double questions e.g. Are you an effective and efficient teacher?

2. Do not use leading or biased questions e.g. are you shocked by the many
subjects our children are learning?

3. Do not use presuming questions e.g. how do you like teaching in a remote
part of the country?

4. Avoid or re-phrase sensitive or threatening questions e.g. how old are you?

5. Each question should deal with a single concept and be worded as clearly as
possible e.g. Do you spend a lot of time on making lesson plans?

The questions should be relevant

 The questions should be vital to the respondent. They should reflect on

things that are relevant to the respondent or what they are about. Failure to
observe this leads to misleading results.

Avoid biased items or terms

 Check on the wording of the items to avoid any form of biases. For example:
Do you sometimes disagree with the head teacher’s recent remarks on…?
Avoid words like sometimes, often, always and instead use ‘number of times
per week’.

Keep the questionnaire short

 The instrument should be short. Respondents get bored and tired of very
long questionnaires. The maximum number of items should be thirty.
Always eliminate questions whose answers can be found in other sources.

Some disadvantages of questionnaires

 Questionnaires, like many evaluation methods occur after the event, so

participants may forget important issues.

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  Questionnaires are standardized so it is not possible to explain any points in
the questions that participants might misinterpret. This could be partially
solved by piloting the question on a small group of students or at least
friends and colleagues. It is advisable to do this anyway.

 Open-ended questions can generate large amounts of data that can take a
long time to process and analyze. One way of limiting this would be to limit
the space available to students so that their responses are concise or to
sample the students and survey only a portion of them.

 Respondents may answer superficially especially if the questionnaire takes a

long time to complete. The common mistake of asking too many questions
should be avoided.

 Students may not be willing to answer the questions. They might not wish to
reveal the information or they might think that they will not benefit from
responding perhaps even be penalized by giving their real opinion. Students
should be told why the information is being collected and how the results
will be beneficial. They should be asked to reply honestly and told that if
their response is negative this is just as useful as a more positive opinion. If
possible the questionnaire should be anonymous.

Some advantages of questionnaires

 The responses are gathered in a standardized way, so questionnaires are

more objective, certainly more so than interviews.

 Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a

questionnaire. However in some situations they can take a long time not
only design but also to apply and analyze (see disadvantages for more
information).

 Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group.

This potential is not often realized, as returns from questionnaires are
usually low. However return rates can be dramatically improved if the
questionnaire is delivered and responded to in class time.

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 c) Observation Guide

Observation guide is a research instrument that guides the researcher in gathering

data from key areas through sight. This involves looking at the phenomenon,
objects or form of behaviour that are indicated in the instrument from which
meaning are extracted or analyzed.

Types of Observation

Participant Observation: - Getting involved in the day to day life of the people
while collecting information without them knowing that you are collecting data.

Non-participant Observation: Carrying out observation without participating in

the activities of the people and the people are aware that you are collecting data
about them.

d) Document Analysis Guide

This is used to guide the researcher in collecting data from documented records
such as school account records, students discipline book, minutes for the meeting
etc. This is also a vital tool in historical research where past documents are
analyzed to unveil some historical facts, understand the circumstances that led to
the development of certain theory etc.

e) Focus Group Discussions

A focus group discussion is an organized discussion through structured in a

flexible way. It usually last one or two hours and it provides the opportunity for all
respondents to participate. Focus groups should be composed of homogenous
members of the target of respondents who are similar in terms of social class, age,
level of knowledge, in addition to any other variables you may identify.

f) Test

A test is a collection of items developed to measure some human psychological

attributes. Tests are the most commonly used methods of determining the level of
cognitive abilities, skills or characteristics possessed by an individual. Tests have
formats such as True/false response, multiple choice, sentence completion and
open-ended essay items.

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Data Analysis and Report Writing
Here, we discuss how to summarize, analyze and interpret the raw data collected
from questionnaires, interview guides and other instruments.

Measurement

Meaning of measurement

Measurement is a process of assigning numbers or words that take the place of

numbers to objects according to rules. Distance, Length, Weight, Capacity etc.

Nature of Educational Measurement

Most human attributes that educationists are interested in cannot be measured

directly. Human attributes such as intellectual ability, interest, achievement,
attitude, motivation etc. can only be measured indirectly by the way the individual
exhibits some form of behaviours towards certain objects or how he or she
performs a particular task.

Characteristics of Measurement

a) All measurement contain errors.

b) All measurement are approximate.

c) The results of any repeated measurements do not agree exactly.

Sources of errors in measurement

 Personal errors

Results from poor manipulative skill of the person making measurement

 Error in the measuring instrument

Results from faulty instruments

 Error in methods

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Result from using an instrument under the condition for which it was not intended.

Levels of Measurement/ Measurement Scales

i) Nominal Scale

In nominal scale numbers are simply used to represent or identify objects or

categories of objects. For example:

Sex

1=male,

2=female

Age group

1=15 to 20 years

2=21 to 25 years

3=26 to 30 years

The numbers used in here have no level of magnitude.

ii) Ordinal scale

Ordinal scale ranks objects or observation in order of magnitude but has no zero
point. This means it does not show the distance between the values.

For example when the class is graded as A, B, C, D and F, it is clear that the person
who got grade A has done better than the one who got grade B but it does not show
how much the person who got A has defeated the person who got B. Ordinal scale
has the property of identity and magnitude only.

iii) Interval scale

Interval scale ranks objects or observation in order of magnitude and has a zero
point but the zero is arbitrary. The zero point means the distance between the
numbers are equal.

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For example when measuring temperature, the starting point in a thermometer
labelled zero does not mean absence of heat but rather it is arbitrarily fixed that at
that point it is as good as zero heat. When a student gets zero in a test, it does not
mean the student has no intelligence but zero at that point simply means the
student’s ability is as good as zero.

iv) Ratio scale

Ratio scale ranks objects or observation in order of magnitude, has equal intervals
between numbers and has a true zero point. For example in measuring distance,
weight or height, when one is at the initial point he or she is at zero point.

Ratio scale is the highest level of measurement because it has all the four
properties of measurement. (Identity, magnitude, equal interval between numbers
and true real point)

WEEK NINE
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to establish the relationship between parental conflict and social adjustment

of adolescent students in secondary school Murang’a County, Kenya.

Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by the following research objectives:

1. To establish the frequency of parental conflict in families of students in secondary schools in

Murang’a County.

2. To find out the types of parental conflicts in families of students in secondary schools in Murang’a

County.

3. To assess the level of social adjustment of students in secondary schools in Murang’a County.

4. To examine the relationship between parental conflict and social adjustment of students in secondary

schools in Murang’a County

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5. To find out if there is any gender differences in social adjustments of students in secondary schools in

Murang’a County.

Research Questions

The study explored for answers to the following research questions:

1. What is the frequency of parental conflict in families of students in secondary schools in Murang’a

County?

2. Which types of parental conflicts are experienced in families of students in secondary schools in

Murang’a County?

3. What is the level of social adjustment of students in secondary school in Murang’a County?

Research Hypotheses

The study tested the following research hypotheses;

1. There is statistically significant relationship between parental conflict and social adjustment of

students in secondary schools in Murang’a County?

2. There are statistically significant gender differences in social adjustments of students in secondary

school in Murang’a County?

i.1 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework of the study provides a diagrammatical presentation of the

relationship between independent variables and dependent variables. This relationship is as

proposed by the theoretical framework and review of the literature.

Independent Moderating Dependent

Variables Variable Variable

Destructive
Adolescent social
conflicts
adjustment

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Behaviour
 Offensive
interpersonal
 Parental Conflicts

Constructive
conflicts

Gender

Figure 2:1: The Conceptual Framework for the Relationship between Parental Conflicts and
Social Adjustment of Adolescent Students

Source: Author; 2017

MAIN / ESSENTIAL /KEY COMPONENTS (ELEMENTS) OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

TOPIC OF THE STUDY

PRELIMINARY PAGES - ROMAN NUMBERS i, ii, iii,....
ii DECLARATION
ii DEDICATION
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv ABSTRACT - EXECUTIVE SUMMARY (Introduction, Statement of the problem, Topic, Objectives,
Main theories, Research design, Population, Sample size, and sampling procedures, research
instruments, [findings after data analysis] who is to benefit with your study)
v TABLE OF CONTENT
vi LIST OF TABLES
vii LIST OF FIGURES
viii ABREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMES

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM OF STUDY
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF THE STUDY
1.6 RESEARCHHYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE / JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
1.8 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINATION
1.9 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.10 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
1.11 CONCLUSION

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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW - 5 Years 2020 - 2015

2.1 INRODUCTION
2.2 THEORETICAL REVIEW
2.3 RELATED STUDIES
2.3.1 - Research objective 1 [Frequency of Parental Conflicts]
2.3.2 Research objective 2 [Types of Parental Conflict]
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.4 CONCLUSION AND RESEARCH GAPS

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGNS
3.3 STUDY SITE / LOCATION (LOCALE) OF THE STUDY
3.4 TARGET POPULATION
3.5 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES - INCLUSIVE CRITERION
3.6 DATA COLLECTION METHODS
3.7 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
3.8 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES
3.9 PILOT STUDY
3.10 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF STUDY INSTRUMENTS
3.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
3.12 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
APA 6TH EDITION FORMART

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