Armature reaction and

commutation

1
 Armature reaction
The effect of magnetic field produced by the current
through armature conductors on the main field flux is
called armature reaction.
The armature reaction has two effects in main field flux
(i) It demagnetises or weakens the main flux
(ii) It cross-magnetises or distorts it.
The first effect leads to reduced generated voltage and
the second to the sparking at the brushes

2
 • Consider a DC generator with two poles
• “The axis along which there is no e.m.f. induced in the
armature conductors is called Magnetic Neutral Axis
(MNA).MNA is perpendicular to net magnetic flux. Brushes
are always placed along the MNA
• The geometric neutral axis (GNA)is nothing but the axis of
symmetry between the poles”
Fig:i shows the direction of field flux
when no current is flowing through
the armature
Ofm represents the main field flux ,
both in magnitude and direction

3
• Now consider the armature
flux only assuming the
generator rotation in clockwise
direction
• The direction of armature
current is found out by
Flemings right hand rule
• The direction of armature flux
is found out by right hand grip
rule
• OFA represents the the
armature mmf both in
magnitude and direction

4
• In practice both armature and
field mmf exist simultaneously
• The resultant flux distribution is
shown in figure iii
• Vector OF is the resultant mmf is
the vector sum of armature mmf
and field mmf
• New MNA is perpendicular to
resultant mmf
• MNA shifts by an angle ϴ
• The direction of shift of MNA is in
the direction of rotation for a
generator
• The flux is crowded at trailing pole
tip and weakened at leading pole
tip

5
• As MNA is shifted , brushes are also
shifted so as to lie along the MNA
• Now armature conductors and
armature current is redistributed as
shown in the figure
The armature m.m.f. is now
represented by the vector OFA which is
not vertical but is inclined by an angle θ
to the left. It can now be resolved into
two rectangular components, OF d
parallel to polar axis and OFC
perpendicular to this axis.

6
• The two components of armature reaction are
(i) component Ofc is at right angles to the vector OFm
representing the main m.m.f. It produces distortion in
the main field and is hence called the cross-magnetising
or distorting component of the armature reaction.
(ii) The component OFd is in direct opposition of OFm
which represents the main m.m.f. It exerts a
demagnetising influence on the main pole flux. Hence,
it is called the demagnetising or weakening component
of the armature reaction

7
Necessity of compensating winding
• These windings are embedded in slots in the pole shoes and
are connected in series with armature in such a way that the
current in them flows in opposite direction to that flowing in
armature conductors directly below the pole shoes.
• The magnetic flux produced by compensating winding is
opposite to that produced by armature winding
• Their function is to neutralize the cross magnetizing effect of
armature reaction.

8
 Commutation
• The current induced in armature conductors is
alternating. To make the current flow unidirectional
in the external circuit we need a commutator
• The current flows in one direction when the
armature conductor is under the south pole and in
opposite direction when they are under North pole
• As the conductors pass out from the influence of
north pole to south pole, the reversal of current
takes place along the MNA/brush axis

9
• The process by which the current in the short
circuited coil reverses while it crosses MNA is
called commutation
• The period for which the coil remains short
circuited is called commutation period(Tc)

10
11
• Brush width= One commutator segment + One mica
insulation
• Coils and commutator segments are rotating brush is fixed
• If coils to the left of brush are under one polarity say north,
coil to the right of brush are under opposite polarity ,south
• Here commutation of coil B is considered
• Fig a: Brush is in contact with commutator segment b only,
coil B and C supplies 20A each to the brush
• Fig b: Coil B enters its short circuit period. The current
through coil B is reduced from 20A to 10A, because the
other 10A flows through segment a. The area of contact of
brush is more with segment b than with segment a . Hence
the brush receives 30A from segment b. Total current being
40A again

12
• Fig c: shows the coil B in the middle of short circuit period. The
current through it has decreased to zero , The two currents of
value 20A each passes from coils A and C to the brushes through
segments a and b respectively. The contact area of brush with
segments a and b are equal.
• Fig d: Coil B has become part of group of coils lying to the right of
brush. The brush contact area with segment b is decreasing rapidly
where as with segment a is increasing. Coil B now carries 10A in
reverse direction which combines with 20A supplied by coil A to
make up 30A to pass from segment a to the brush. The other 10 A
is supplied by coil C and passes from segment b to the brush.
• Fig e: The moment in which coil B is almost at the end of
commutation period. For ideal commutation the current should
have reversed to 20A by now. But it is carrying only 15A the
remaining 5A jumps directly from segment b to brush through air
producing spark.(Delayed commutation)

13
• The main cause of delayed commutation is the
self induced emf (due to the self inductance of
coil)
• The self induced emf is known as reactance
voltage

14
 Methods of improving commutation
1. Resistance commutation
Replace low resistance copper brushes by comparatively high
resistance carbon brushes
2. EMF Commutation
• Arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by
producing a reversing emf(In opposition and equal to reactance
voltage ) in the short circuited coil under commutation
1. Either by giving brushes a sufficient forward lead to bring the
short circuited coil under the influence next pole of opposite
polarity
2. By using inter poles

15
• Interpoles/ compoles: They are small poles
fixed to the yoke having a few heavy gauge
turns connected in series with the armature so
that they carry full armature current.

16
• The interpoles induce an emf in the short
circuited coil opposite to reactance voltage,
there by making sparkles commutation
• The emf induced by interpoles is known as
commutating emf and is proportional to
armature current
• Interpoles neutralises the cross magnetising
effect of armature reaction

17
 DC GENERATOR
CHARACTERISTICS

18
1. NO LOAD SATURATION CHARACTERISTIC ( E0 / If )

⮚Magnetic characteristic or open circuit characteristic (O C C )

⮚Relation between the no load generated e m f in armature , E0 & the

field or excitation current If at a given speed.

⮚Shape is same for all generators.

2. INTERNAL OR TOTAL CHARACTERISTIC ( E / Ia)

⮚Relation between the e m f ,E actually induced in the armature and

armature current Ia.

3. EXTERNAL CHARACTRISTIC ( V / I )
⮚Relation between the terminal voltage V and the load current I .

⮚Lies below the internal characteric because it take into account the
voltage drop over the armature circuit resistance.

19
SEPARATELY –EXCITED GENERATOR
i ) No load saturation characteristic ( E0 / If ) / OCC/Magnetic characteristics

Saturation of Magnetic Curve

If b

Voltage in Volt
a
Field current

1.Circuit Diagram 2.No-load saturation curve

20
 The circuit diagram for obtaining the necessary data to plot
the curve is shown in figure. The exciting field current Ifis
obtained from an external independent d.c source. The field
current varied from zero upwards by a potentiometer & its value
read by an ammeter A connected in the circuit.

Eg =Xvolt
If speed is constant Eg= k Ø volt.

When If is increased from its initial small value ,the flux Ø and
hence generated emf Eg increases directly. This is represented
by the straight portion ab. But as the flux density increases , the
poles become saturated , so a great increase in If is required to
produce a given increase in voltage than on the later part of the
curve. That is why the upper portion bc of the curve bends over
as shown
21
Internal & External characteristic
Internal Characteristic
1 E0
V Armature reaction drop
2 E
Armature
resistance drop
3
V

External Characteristic
Voltage in
Volt

o
Armature current /Load current

22
Consider a separately excited generator giving its rated no-
load voltage of Eo, for a given certain constant field current.
If there were no armature reaction & armature voltage drop ,
then this voltage would have remained constant as curve 1.

But when the generator is loaded , the voltages falls due to

armature reaction & armature Ohmic drop. If we subtract the
values of voltage drops due to armature reaction from Eo for
different loads , then we get the value of E – the emf actually
induced in the armature under load condition (curve -2), and
is known as Internal characteristic.

If we subtract the armature drop Ia Ra from E , we get

terminal voltage V. Curve -3 represents external
characteristic.
23
OCC / No load saturation curve for Shunt Generator

Rheostat O C C at constant speed

c
A

Generated e m f in volt Eg
+ b
V
Field

Armature

a
Residual
Voltage o Field current in
1. Circuit Diagram
amperes If
2. No-load saturation curve

24
⮚ The field current If is varied using rheostat and its value read
on the ammeter A .
⮚ The machine is driven at constant speed by the prime mover
and the generated emf on no load is measured by the
voltmeter connected across the armature.
⮚ If is increased by suitable steps and the corresponding values
of Eg are measured.
⮚ On plotting the relation between If & Eg . A curve of the form
shown in fig.2 is obtained.
⮚ The curve starts a little way up due to residual magnetism.(ie:
Even if the field current is zero, there is a small generated
voltage (oa) due to the residual magnetism present in the field
poles)

25
Eg =Xvolt
If speed is constant Eg= k Ø volt.

When If is increased from its initial small value ,the flux Ø and
hence generated emf Eg increases directly. This is represented
by the straight portion ab. But as the flux density increases , the
poles become saturated , so a great increase in If is required to
produce a given increase in voltage than on the later part of the
curve. That is why the upper portion bc of the curve bends over
as shown

26
• Critical Resistance for shunt generator
• The Slope of the tangent drawn to initial portion of OCC is
called critical resistance .
• It is the maximum field circuit resistance with which the shunt
generator would excite.
• The shunt generator will build up voltage only if field circuit
resistance is less than critical field resistance.

27
OCC at different speeds Since E α N for any fixed
excitation

E2 /E1 = N2 / N1

E2 = E1 X N2 / N1

OCC at speed N1 for If = OC, E1= AC.

A The value of new voltage
for the same If but at N2
OCC at speed N2
E2 = AC X N2 / N1
E
B

O C If
28
Critical Speed
• The critical speed of a shunt generator is the minimum
speed below which it fails to excite.
• It is the speed for which the given shunt field resistance
represents the critical resistance.
BC / AC = Nc / N (full speed)

A .’. Nc = N x BC / AC
P OCC at speed N

Eg OCC at speed Nc
B
sh
R

C If
29
 Internal and external characteristics / load characteistics of shunt
generator

The circuit diagram to plot the internal and external characteristics is shown
in figure

IL
A1 A2
If
+
load
Eg V
V
Field

Ia
_

Circuit Diagram

30
Procedure
Connections are made as shown in the figure
Field resistance is kept in minimum position and load resistance in maximum
position
The switch in the load side is kept open
Generator is run at rated speed
By adjusting the field resistance make the terminal voltage of generator to rated
voltage
Close the load side switch
Gradually decrease the load resistance
Each time note down load current and terminal voltage while changing the load
resistance
As the load resistance decreases, load current increases

31
Internal and external characteristics of shunt
generator
No load generated emf
a
Armature reaction drop

Ohmic drop

Internal characteristic Eg/Ia

Eg/V in Volt

External characteristic
V/IL

c
d
0
Ia/IL in ampere
32
• As the generator is loaded by decreasing the resistance, the
generated voltage reduces from the no load voltage due to the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction
• The terminal voltage is lower than the generated voltage due to
ohmic drop
• Causes of curve turning back:
⮚ As the load increases, terminal voltage drops hence shunt field
current reduces
⮚ After a certain value, the terminal voltage drastically decreases due
to excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and
increased IR losses. Hence, beyond this limit any further decrease in
load resistance results in decreasing load current. Consequently, the
external characteristic curve turns back as shown by dotted line in
the above figure.
33
CONDITION FOR SELF EXCITATION

• There must be sufficient residual magnetism in the field

poles.
• The field terminal should be connected such a way that
the field current increases flux in the direction of residual
flux.
• The field circuit resistance should be less than the
critical field circuit resistance.
• If excited on load, then its shunt field resistance should
be more than a certain minimum value of resistance
known as critical load resistance
• The generator must run above critical speed

34
• Why shunt generator is failing to build up
voltage?
1. No residual magnetism
2. Reversed direction of rotation
3. Reversed shunt field connection( So that shunt
field current opposes residual magnetism)
4. For a given speed, field circuit resistance is
above critical field resistance
5. For a given field resistance, speed is below
critical speed
6. Load resistance below critical load resistance
35
Series generator
In this generator , because of field windings are in series with
the armature , they carry full armature current Ia. As Ia is
increased , flux & hence generated emf is also increased as
shown by the curve V / I .

A series generator has a rising voltage characteristic i.e. with

increase in load , its voltage is also increased. But at high loads
the voltage starts decreasing due to the excessive demagnetising
effects of armature reactions. In fact , terminal voltage starts
decreasing as load current is increased .

36
Characteristic of series generator

37
38
• The OCC of a series generator can be obtained by supplying a
separate dc supply to its field winding like separately excited
dc generator, Since dc series generator cannot be excited
without load.
• Initially the generator must be brought up to its rated speed,
the voltmeter gives some residual voltage (OA), but no field
current or load current flows since switch S is open.
• Now load resistance is kept in its maximum position and
switch S is closed.
• Now load resistance is decreased in steps to increase load
current and terminal voltage and load currents are measured
• Initially as load current increases terminal voltage increases
due to increase in field current as shown in figure
• Any increase in load current beyond rated value, the terminal
voltage reduces due to increased armature reaction.

39
• The internal characteristics is obtained by
adding ohmic drop(Ia(Ra+Rse)) to external
characteristics.
• The OCC is obtained by adding armature
reaction drop to the internal characteristics.
• The armature reaction drop can be assumed
to be equal to ohmic drop(Ia(Ra+Rse))
• This is approximate method, the exact method
of plotting OCC is by supplying series field with
external supply
40
• The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit
characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because in DC series
generators field winding is connected in series with
armature and load. Hence, here load current is similar to
field current(i.e. IL=If).
• The curve OC and OD represent internal and external
characteristic respectively.
• In a DC series generator, terminal voltage increases with
the load current. This is because, as the load current
increases, field current also increases.
• Beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage starts
decreasing with increase in load. This is due to excessive
demagnetizing effects of the armature reaction.

41
Characteristics of compound wound generator

42
• The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC
compound generators.
• If the series field ampere – turns are such as to produce emf
equal to drop due to armature resistance and armature reaction
drop then it is called flat compound.
• If the series field ampere – turns are such to produce emf
greater than drop due to armature resistance and armature
reaction drop then it is called over – compound
• If the series field ampere – turns are such to produce emf less
than drop due to armature resistance and armature reaction
drop then it is called under- compounded.

43
Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators:

Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output,

they are generally used for testing purpose in the
laboratories.

Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with

any variation in field excitation. Because of this property they
are used as supply source of DC motors, whose speeds are to
be controlled for various applications.

Example- Ward Leonard Systems of speed control.

44
Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators:

They are used for general lighting.

They are used to charge battery because they can be made

to give constant output voltage.

They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.

They are also used for small power supply.

45
Applications of Series Wound DC Generators:

They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC

locomotives for regenerative breaking.

This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate

the voltage drop in the feeder in various types of
distribution systems such as railway service.

46
. Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators:
• Over compounded cumulative generators are used in lighting
and heavy power supply.
• Flat compounded generators are used in offices, hotels,
homes, schools, etc.
• Differentially compounded generators are mainly used for arc
welding purpose.

47
PARALLEL OPERATION OF
GENERATORS

48
 NECESSITY
1. Continuity of service : Even if one unit fails, the other units can
supply the system. A single generator do not give this facility

2. Efficiency: The generator has maximum efficiency near peak load , So

at light load small capacity generators are put into operation and at
high load large capacity generators are put into operation

3. Maintenance & repair: Any generator set can be taken for

maintenance without disturbing the supply

4. Additions to plant : The plant capacity can be extended by adding

more generators

49
Conditions to be satisfied for parallel operation
• Same polarity
• Same terminal voltage
• Equalizer rings must be used for series and
compound generators

50
 SHUNT GENERATORS IN PARALLEL

+B BUSBAR

S VOLTMETER V S1

AMMETER A1 A2

SHUNT FIELD
1 2
ARMATURE

RHEOSTST
SWITCH S2

-B

51
 Whenever generators are in parallel , their +ve & -Ve terminals are
respectively connected to the +ve & -Ve sides of the busbars. Busbars
are heavy thick copper bars & they acts as +ve & -Ve terminals for the
whole power stations. If polarity of the incoming generator is not the
same as the line polarity , a serious short- circuit will occur.

In the figure shows a shunt generator No. 1 connected across the

bus bars BB & supplying some of the load.

For putting generator no. 2 in parallel with it,

1) Connections are made as shown in the fig
2) The armature of generator No.2 is speeded by the prime mover up to
its rated value
3) Then switch S2 is closed
4) The excitation of machine No.2 is changed till V reads zero. (The
voltmeter reads zero voltage when the voltage of incoming generator
becomes equal to the bus bar voltage)
5) Then switch S1 is closed and so the incoming machine is parallel 52
to
Now the generator No. 2 not taking any load , it just floating on
the bus bar.

The generator No 2 is to deliver any current , its induced e m f

E should be greater than the busbar voltage.

Now the current supplied is I = ( E – V )/Ra.

The induced e m f of the incoming generator is increased by

strengthening its field till it takes its proper share of load and at
the same time weaken the field of generator No.1 to maintain the
bus bar voltage V as constant.

53
 Series Generators in Parallel

I1 I2 I1 I2

SERIES
FIELD

EQUALIZER
L BAR L
O O
1 E1 2 E2 A ARMATURE 1 2 E2 A
E1
D D

54
Two identical series generators are connected in parallel
and induced emfs E1 & E2 are initially equal & each
supply equal currents, and have equal field resistance.

If E1 increases slightly , then I1 become greater than I2 .

Consequently field of machine 1 is strengthened thus
increasing E1 further while the field of machine 2 is
weakened thus decreasing E2 further.

A final stage is reached when machine 1 supplies not

only the whole load but also supplies power to machine
2 which starts running as a motor. Obviously , the two
machines will form a short – circuited loop and the
current will rise indefinitely. This condition can be
prevented by using equalizer bar as shown in fig.
55
 COMPOUND GENERATORS IN PARALLEL
BUS BSR

SERIES FIELD
EQUILISER BUSBAR

+
+

ARMATURE

- -

56
 If Generator no 1 takes a slightly increased load , the current
passing through its series field increases which further
strengthens its field and so raises its generated e m f thus
causing it to take still more load.

Since the system is assumed to be constant ,generator no. 2 will

drop some of its load , there by weakening its series field which
will result in its further dropping off its load.

This effect is cumulative , generator no.1 will therefore, tend to

take the entire load and finally drive generator no. 2 as a motor.

57
The parallel operation of over-compound & level compound
generators, are making stable by using an equalizer bar
connected to the armature ends of the series coil of the generator

For maintaining proper division of load from no load to full load

1) the regulation of each generator is the same and

2) the series field resistances are inversely proportional to the

generator rating.

58
• Previous questions
Part A
• Define commutation
• Define critical resistance
• Define armature reaction
• Define critical speed
• Name any two method of improving commutation
Part B and C
• What are the requirements of voltage build up in self
excited DC generator
• Draw and explain internal and external characteristics of
DC shunt generator
• Explain the necessity of parallel operation of DC generator

59
• Explain OCC of a separately excited DC
generator
• Explain the OCC of a DC shunt generator
• Explain different methods of improving
commutation
• Describe the effect of armature reaction with
the aid of diagrams
• List the applications of DC generator
• Explain why shunt generator is failing to build
up voltage

60
• Draw and explain the load characteristics of a dc
shunt generator
• Explain with a neat sketch, the parallel operation
of dc shunt generator
• Define a) critical speed b) critical resistance
• Explain critical resistance and how it can be
obtained
• Explain the necessity and conditions for parallel
operation of DC shunt generator
• Explain the parallel operation of Dc shunt
generator
61