1. Introduction of basic concepts and definition of important principles
2. DC Machines: Construction features of DC Machines (Generators and Motors) 3. AC Machines: Construction, principle operation of induction motors 4. The Synchronous machines: Construction and operation of synchronous machines. Advantages of synchronous machines over induction machines 5. Transformer: working principle of transformers operation.no-load and loaded conditions of transformers 6. Electric drive Introduction Motor: an electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Generator: generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy
The action of a commutator
• In an electric motor, conductors rotate in a uniform magnetic field. A single-loop conductor mounted between permanent magnets is shown in the Figure A force, F, acts on the loop due to the interaction of the magnetic field of the permanent magnets and the magnetic field created by the current flowing in the loop. • This force is proportional to the flux density, B, the current flowing, I, and the effective length of the conductor, i.e. 𝐹 = 𝐵 ∗ 𝑖 ∗ 𝑙. • The force is made up of two parts, one acting vertically downwards due to the current flowing from C to D and the other acting vertically upwards due to the current flowing from E to F (from Fleming’s left-hand rule)
If the loop is free to rotate, then when it has rotated through 180◦, the conductors are as shown in Figure. For rotation to continue in the same direction, it is necessary for the current flow to be as shown in Figure 21.1(b), i.e. from D to C and from F to E. This apparent reversal in the direction of current flow is achieved by a process called commutation. Introduction Principle of Operation of a Single Loop D.C. Generator • All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced e.m.f. This principle nothing but the Faraday’s law of electromagnetism induction. • It states that, ‘whenever the number of magnetic lines of force i.e. flux linking with a conductor or a coil changes, an electromotive force is set up in that conductor or coil.’ The change in flux associated with the conductor can exist only when there exists a relative motion between a conductor and the flux. The relative motion can be achieved by rotating conductor with respect to flux or by rotating flux with respect to a conductor. • In a particular generator, the conductors are rotated to cut the magnetic flux, keeping flux stationary. To have a large voltage as the output, the number of conductors are connected together in a specific manner, to form a winding. • This winding is called armature winding of a d.c. machine. The part on which this winding is kept is called armature of a d.c. machine. To have the rotation of conductors, the conductors placed on the armature are rotated with the help of some external device. Principle of Operation of a Single Loop D.C. Generator • The necessary magnetic flux is produced by current carrying winding which is called field winding. The direction of the induced e.m.f. can be obtained by using Fleming’s right hand role.
Single Loop DC Generator
In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two opposite poles of magnet. Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the magnetic field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the loop cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop. Principle of Operation of a Single Loop D.C. Generator
Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now upper side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position). At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field. Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in the loop. If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal position as shown in the figure beside. Principle of Operation of a Single Loop D.C. Generator
As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the current can be determined by Flemming's right hand Rule. This rule says that if you stretch thumb, index finger and middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N - pole to S - pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor. Now if we apply this right hand rule, we will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow from point A to B and on the other side of the loop current will flow from point C to D. Principle of Operation of a Single Loop D.C. Generator
Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux cutting is maximum here and according to Flemming's right hand Rule, at this position current flows from B to A and on other side from D to C. Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every time the side AB comes in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it comes in front of N pole, the current flows from B to A. Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of S pole the current flows from C to D and when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C. Working Principle of DC Generator
It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional. Working Principle of DC Generator
This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a and b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane of the lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero. D.c. machine construction The basic parts of any d.c. machine are shown in Figure D.c. machine construction The basic parts of any d.c. machine are shown in Figure D.c. machine construction A. A stationary part called the stator having, • The yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.
• Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support field coils (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly
• field windings, They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form alternate North and South poles. D.c. machine construction A rotating part called the armature mounted in bearings housed in the stator and having • Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding: The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes. Armature is keyed to the shaft.
• Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will carry two different coils. D.c. machine construction • Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft. Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the current. D.c. machine construction A. Armature windings can be divided into two groups, depending on how the wires are joined to the commutator. These are called wave windings and lap windings. i. In wave windings there are two paths in parallel, irrespective of the number of poles, each path supplying half the total current output. Wave wound generators produce high-voltage, low current outputs. ii. In lap windings there are as many paths in parallel as the machine has poles. The total current output divides equally between them. Lap-wound generators produce high-current, low-voltage output
Lap winding of a DC Machine
In this type of winding the completing end of one coil is
connected to a commutator segment and to the start end of adjacent coil located under the same pole and similarly all coils are connected. This type of winding is known as lap because the sides of successive coils overlap each other D.c. machine construction Lap winding of a DC Machine Lap winding may be simplex (single) or multiplex (duplex or triplex) winding. In simplex lap winding the connection of the winding is that there are as many parallel paths as there are number of poles. Whereas for duplex, the number of parallel paths are equal to twice that of the number of poles and for triplex it is thrice. For this reason, the lap winding is called multiple or parallel winding. The sole purposes of such type of windings are, (a) To increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature current to increase i.e., for high current output. (b) To improve commutation as the current per conductor decreases. D.c. machine construction Wave winding of a DC Machine In wave winding the coils which are carrying current in one direction are connected in series circuit and the coils carrying current in opposite direction are connected in another series circuit. A wave winding is shown in figure.
If after passing once around the armature the winding
falls in a slot to the left of its starting point then winding is said to be retrogressive. If it fails one slot to the right it is progressive Shunt, series and compound windings • When the field winding of a d.c.machine is connected in parallel with the armature, the machine is said to be shunt wound • If the field winding is connected in series with the armature then the machine is said to be series wound • A compound wound machine has a combination of series and shunt windings. Shunt, series and compound windings • Depending on whether the electrical machine is series wound, shunt wound or compound wound, it behaves differently when a load is applied. The behaviour of a d.c. machine under various conditions is shown by means of graphs, called characteristic curves . • The characteristics shown in the following sections are theoretical, since they neglect the effects of armature reaction. • Armature reaction is the effect that the magnetic field produced by the armature current has on the magnetic field produced by the field system. In a generator, armature reaction results in a reduced output voltage, and in a motor, armature reaction results in increased speed. • A way of overcoming the effect of armature reaction is to fit compensating windings, located in slots in the pole face. E.m.f. generated in an armature winding
• Let Z =number of armature conductors, Φ=useful flux per pole, in webers p=number of pairs of poles n=armature speed in rev/s
The e.m.f. generated by the armature is equal to the e.m.f. generated by one of the parallel paths. Each conductor passes 2𝑝 poles per revolution and thus cuts 2𝑝Φ webers of magnetic flux per revolution. Hence flux cut by one conductor per second = 2𝑝𝛷𝑛 Wb and so the average e.m.f. E generated per conductor is given by:
𝐄 = 𝟐𝒑𝜱𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 E.m.f. generated in an armature winding • E = 2𝑝𝛷𝑛 volts (since 1 volt=1 weber per second) Let c = number of parallel paths through the winding between positive and negative brushes c = 2 for a wave winding c = 2p for a lap winding 𝑍 The number of conductors in series in each path = 𝐶 The total e.m.f. between brushes =(average e.m.f./conductor)(number of conductors in series per path)
𝑍 • The total e.m.f. between brushes = 2𝑝𝛷𝑛 𝐶 2𝑝𝛷𝑛𝒁 i.e. generated e.m.f., 𝑬 = 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝑪
• Since Z, p and c are constant for a given machine, then E ∝n. However 2πn is the angular velocity ω in radians per second, hence the generated e.m.f. is proportional to and ω, i.e. 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸. 𝑀. 𝐹, 𝑬𝜶𝜱𝝎 E.m.f. generated in an armature winding • Problem 1. An 8-pole, wave-connected armature has 600 conductors and is driven at 625rev/min. If the flux per pole is 20mWb, determine the generated e.m.f. E.m.f. generated in an armature winding • Problem 2. A 4-pole generator has a lap-wound armature with 50 slots with 16 conductors per slot. The useful flux per pole is 30mWb. Determine the speed at which the machine must be driven to generate an e.m.f. of 240V. E.m.f. generated in an armature winding • Problem 3. An 8-pole, lap-wound armature has 1200 conductors and a flux per pole of 0.03Wb. Determine the e.m.f. generated when running at 500rev/min.
• Problem 4. Determine the generated e.m.f. in Problem 3 if the armature is wave-
wound. E.m.f. generated in an armature winding • Problem 5. A d.c. shunt-wound generator running at constant speed generates a voltage of 150V at a certain value of field current. Determine the change in the generated voltage when the field current is reduced by 20%, assuming the flux is proportional to the field current. E.m.f. generated in an armature winding • Trial Problem 1. A d.c. generator running at 30rev/s generates an e.m.f. of 200V. Determine the percentage increase in the flux per pole required to generate 250V at 20rev/s.
• Trial Problem 2. A 4-pole armature of a d.c. machine has 1000 conductors and a flux per pole of 20mWb. Determine the e.m.f. generated when running at 600rev/min when the armature is • wave-wound, • lap-wound.
