Nervous System

Nervous System
-Describe the structure of motor and sensory neuron.
-Explain the role of nerve cell membranes in establishing and maintaining

resting potential.
-Describe the conduction of an action potential along the nerve cell membrane.
-Explain synaptic transmission.
-Outline the role of synapsis.

Nervous System
The nervous system coordinates the actions of complex organisms via the transmission of
electrochemical signals.
These signals are transmitted by a specialised network of cells called neurons.
The nervous system can be divided into two main parts:
CNS (Central nervous system) – Made up of the brain and spinal cord
PNS (Peripheral nervous system) – Made of peripheral nerves which link the CNS to the body’s
receptors and effectors

Neuron- • Parts of a neuron
Definition
Neurons are the building
blocks of the nervous
system.
They receive and transmit
signals to different parts of
the body.
Sensory Neuron
The sensory neurons convert
signals from the external
environment into corresponding
internal stimuli. The sensory
inputs activate the sensory
neurons and carry sensory
information to the brain and
spinal cord. They are
pseudounipolar in structure.
Motor Neuron
These are multipolar and
are located in the central
nervous system extending
their axons outside the
central nervous system.
This is the most common
type of neuron and
transmits information from
the brain to the muscles of
the body.
Speed Conduction
The speed at which impulses travel along neuron varies due to the diameter of
the axon and whether or not the neuron is myelinated.
 A wider axon increases transmission of electrical impulses with the neuron.
 Myelin insulates the neuron, hence the rates of transmitting the electrical
impulse increases.
Generation of a Resting Potential
Resting Potential
• Neurons generate and conduct electrical signals by pumping
positively charged ions (Na+ and K+) across their membrane
• The unequal distribution of ions on different sides of the

membrane creates a charge difference called a membrane
potential
• A resting potential is the difference in charge across the

membrane when a neuron is not firing
• In a typical resting potential, the inside of the neuron is more

negative relative to the outside (approximately –70 mV)
The maintenance of a resting potential is an active process (i.e. ATP dependent)
that is controlled by sodium-potassium pumps. The sodium-potassium pump is a
transmembrane protein that actively exchanges sodium and potassium ions
(antiport).
It expels 3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions admitted (additionally, some K+ ions
will then leak back out of the cell).
This creates an electrochemical gradient whereby the cell interior is relatively
negative compared to the extracellular environment (as there are more positively
charged ions outside of the cell and more negatively charged ions inside the cell).
The exchange of sodium and potassium ions requires the hydrolysis of ATP (it is
an energy-dependent process)
Action Potential
• Action potentials are the rapid changes in
charge across the membrane that occur when a
neuron is firing.
• Action potentials occur in three main stages:

depolarization, repolarization and a refractory
period
Depolarisation
Depolarisation refers to a sudden change in membrane potential – usually from a
(relatively) negative to positive internal charge.
In response to a signal initiated at a dendrite, sodium channels open within the

membrane of the axon.
As Na+ ions are more concentrated outside of the neuron, the opening of sodium
channels causes a passive influx of sodium.
The influx of sodium causes the membrane potential to become more positive
(depolarisation).
Repolarisation
• Repolarisation refers to the restoration of a membrane potential following
depolarisation (i.e. restoring a negative internal charge)
• Following an influx of sodium, potassium channels open within the
membrane of the axon.
• As K+ ions are more concentrated inside the neuron, opening potassium
channels causes a passive efflux of potassium.
• The efflux of potassium causes the membrane potential to return to a more
negative internal differential (repolarisation).
Refractory Period
The refractory period refers to the period of time following a nerve impulse
before the neuron is able to fire again
• In a normal resting state, sodium ions are predominantly outside the
neuron and potassium ions mainly inside (resting potential)
• Following depolarisation (sodium influx) and repolarisation (potassium
efflux), this ionic distribution is largely reversed
• Before a neuron can fire again, the resting potential must be restored via
the antiport action of the sodium-potassium pump
Synapses / Synaptic Cleft
• Synapses are the physical gaps that separate
neurons from other cells (other neurons and
receptor or effector cells).
• Neurons transmit information across synapses by

converting the electrical signal into a chemical
signal.
• Chemical is called neurotransmitters.

Chemical transfer across synaptic
• When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the opening of
voltage-gated calcium channels
• Calcium ions (Ca2+) diffuse into the cell and promote the fusion of vesicles
(containing neurotransmitter) with the cell membrane
• The neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal by exocytosis and cross
the synaptic cleft
• Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic membrane and open
ligand-gated ion channels
• The opening of ion channels generates an electrical impulse in the post-synaptic
neuron, propagating the pre-synaptic signal
• The neurotransmitters released into the synapse are either recycled (by reuptake
pumps) or degraded (by enzymatic activity).

Transmission of impulses from one neuron to another
Acetylcholine Secretion and Reabsorption
Secretion and reabsorption of acetylcholine
by neurons at synapses
• One example of a neurotransmitter used by both the central nervous system and
peripheral nervous system is acetylcholine
• It is commonly released at neuromuscular junctions and binds to receptors on
muscle fibres to trigger muscle contraction.
• It is also commonly released within the autonomic nervous system to promote
parasympathetic responses (‘rest and digest’).
• Acetylcholine is created in the axon terminal by combining choline with an
acetyl group (derived from mitochondrial Acetyl CoA)
• Acetylcholine is stored in vesicles within the axon terminal until released via
exocytosis in response to a nerve impulse.
• Acetylcholine activates a post-synaptic cell by binding to specific receptor.
• Acetylcholine is broken down by the synaptic enzyme acetylcholinesterase
(AChE).
• AChE is either released into the synapse from the presynaptic neuron or
embedded on the membrane of the post-synaptic cell
• The liberated choline is returned to the presynaptic neuron where it is coupled
with another acetate to reform acetylcholine
Effects of Chemical at Synapses
1. Nicotine- consists of a similar shape to acetylcholine. It binds on the
receptors on the post synaptic membrane and remain there for a long time.
2. Botulinum toxin / Botox- at the presynaptic membrane prevents the release
of acetylcholine.
3. Organophosphorus insecticides (Non-competitive inhibitor) – inhibits the
action of acetylcholinesterase , thus causing acetylcholine to cause
continuous production of action potential in the post synaptic membrane.

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Nervous System

-Describe the structure of motor and sensory neuron.

-Explain the role of nerve cell membranes in establishing and maintaining

-Explain synaptic transmission.

-Outline the role of synapsis.

These signals are transmitted by a specialised network of cells called neurons.

The nervous system can be divided into two main parts:

CNS (Central nervous system) – Made up of the brain and spinal cord

receptors and effectors

the axon and whether or not the neuron is myelinated.

 A wider axon increases transmission of electrical impulses with the neuron.

• The unequal distribution of ions on different sides of the

• A resting potential is the difference in charge across the

• In a typical resting potential, the inside of the neuron is more

• Action potentials occur in three main stages:

In response to a signal initiated at a dendrite, sodium channels open within the

• Neurons transmit information across synapses by

• Chemical is called neurotransmitters.

voltage-gated calcium channels

(containing neurotransmitter) with the cell membrane

the synaptic cleft

• Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic membrane and open

ligand-gated ion channels

• The opening of ion channels generates an electrical impulse in the post-synaptic

neuron, propagating the pre-synaptic signal

pumps) or degraded (by enzymatic activity).

1. Nicotine- consists of a similar shape to acetylcholine. It binds on the

2. Botulinum toxin / Botox- at the presynaptic membrane prevents the release

3. Organophosphorus insecticides (Non-competitive inhibitor) – inhibits the

action of acetylcholinesterase , thus causing acetylcholine to cause

continuous production of action potential in the post synaptic membrane.

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