CHAPTER 1   4.

Organ level
Organization of the Human Body  - Organs​, recognizable shapes,
composed of two or more different
Anatomy and Physiology​ - foundation for types of tissues. (stomach, heart, liver,
understanding the structures and functions of lungs, and brain)
the human body. - Serous membrane​, a layer around the
outside of the stomach that protects it
Anatomy​ - science of structure and the and reduces friction when the stomach
relationships among structures. moves and rubs against other organs.
● Smooth muscle tissue ​layers,
Physiology​ - science of body functions, how contract to churn and mix food
the body parts work. and push it on the next
digestive organ, small
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION AND BODY  intestine.
SYSTEMS   ● Epithelial tissue layer​,
  innermost lining of the
1. Chemical level stomach, contributes fluid and
- Atoms​, smallest units of matter that chemical that aid digestion.
participate in chemical reactions.
- Molecules​, two or more atoms joined 5. System level
together. - System​, consist of related organs that
- DNA​ (deoxyribonucleic acid), genetic have a common function.
material passed on from one - Digestive system,​ breaks down and
generation to another. absorbs molecules in food.
- Hemoglobin​, carries oxygen in the
blood. 6. Organism level
- Glucose​, blood sugar - Largest level of organization
- Vitamins​, needed for a variety of - Systems of body combine to make up
chemical processes. an organism

2. Cellular level COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE 

- Cells​, basic structurural and functional ELEVEN PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF THE HUMAN 
units of an organism - smallest living BODY 
units in the body.
● Muscle cells 1. Integumentary system
● Nerve cells - Skin and structures associated with =
● Blood cells hair, nails, and sweat and oil glands,
- Organelles​, cells contain specialized and subcutaneous layer.
structures such as nucleus, - Functions:
mitochondria, and lysosomes > helps regulate body temperature
> protects body
3. Tissue level > eliminates wastes
- Tissues​, groups of cells and the > helps make vitamin D
materials surrounding them that work > detects sensations (touch, pressure,
together to perform a particular pain, warmth, and cold)
function. > stores fat and provides insulation
● Epithelial tissue
● Connective tissue 2. Skeletal system
● Muscular tissue - Bones and joints and their associated
● Nervous tissue cartilages.
(​chapter 4​) - Functions:
 > supports and protects the body
> provides area for muscle attachment
> assists with body movements
> stores cells that produce blood cells
> stores minerals and lipids (fats)
3. Muscular system
- Refers to the muscle tissue/ muscles
attached to bones (​smooth and
cardiac)​
cardiac muscle​: involuntary (heart)

skeletal muscle​: voluntary (tendons to bones)

used to effect skeletal movement such as
locomotion. - Functions:
smooth muscle​: Involuntary (intestines, > regulates body activities
throat, uterus, and blood vessel walls) through hormones transported
by the blood to various target
- Functions:
organs.
> participates in bringing about body
movements (walking)
6. Cardiovascular system
> maintains posture
- Blood, heart, and blood vessels
> produces heat
- Functions:
4. Nervous system
> heart = pumps blood through blood
- Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense
vessels
organs (eyes & ears)
> blood = carries oxygen and nutrients
- Functions:
to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes
> regulates body activities through
away from cells
nerve impulses by detecting changes
> helps regulate acidity, temperature,
in the environment
and water content of body fluids
> interpreting the changes
> blood components help defend
> responding to the changes by
against disease and mend damaged
bringing about muscular contractions
blood vessels
(​glandular secretions​ =​any chemical
produced by a gland)
7. Lymphatic system and Immunity
5. Endocrine system
- Lymphatic fluid (​lymph)​ and vessels
- Hormones, Glands and
(​spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and
tissues that produce chemical
tonsils​)
regulators of the body.
- (​hypothalamus, pineal gland,
Pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal
gland , pancreas, testis.
ovary)
 - Cells that carry out immune responses > produces, stores, and eliminates
(​B cells, T cells​) urine
- T cells​ (thymus ​cells​) and B ​ cells > eliminates wastes and regulates
(bone marrow c ​ ells​) volume and chemical composition of
- T cells​ are involved in c​ ell-​ mediated blood.
immunity, whereas ​B cells​ are > regulates acid-base balance of body
primarily responsible for humoral fluids
immunity (relating to antibodies). > maintains body’s mineral balance
- Functions: > helps regulate red blood cell
> returns proteins and fluid to blood production
> carries lipids from ​gastrointestinal
tract​ to blood 11. Reproductive systems
> contains sites of ​maturation and - Gonads ​(testes in males and
proliferation of B cells and T cells ​that ovaries in females), ​uterine
protect against disease-causing (fallopian) tubes​, ​uterus,
microbes vagina, epididymis,​ d ​ uctus
(vas) deferens​, penis, &
8. Respiratory system mammary glands​ (females)
- Lungs and air passageways = - Functions:
pharynx (throat), larynx (voice > gonads produce gametes
box), trachea (windpipe), & (sperm or oocytes) that unite
bronchial tubes. to form a new organism and
- Functions: release hormones that
> transfers oxygen from regulate reproduction and
inhaled air to blood and other body processes
carbon dioxide, > organs transport and store
(blood to exhaled air) gametes, mammary glands
> helps regulate acidity of (milk)
body fluids
> air flowing out of lungs
through vocal cords produces
sounds
9. Digestive system
- Organs of gastrointestinal tract
(mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small and large intestines,
rectum, & anus.)
- Includes accessory digestive organs
that assist in digestive processes
(salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas)
- Functions:
> physical and chemical breakdown of
food
> absorbs nutrients
> eliminates solid wastes

10. Urinary system

- Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
- Functions:
Life processes of humans  The Nervous System
1. Metabolism - Detects changes from the balanced
- Sum of all the chemical state and sends messages in the form
processes that occur in the of ​nerve impulses​ to organs that can
body counteract the change.
- Breakdown of and building up - Typically rapid corrections
of large, complex molecules The endocrine system
into smaller, simpler ones - Corrects changes by secreting
2.​ Responsiveness molecules = hormones
- Body’s ability to detect and respond to > Hormones
changes in its environment - Affect specific body cells, to cause
- Nerve cells responds to changes in responses that restore homeostasis
the environment by generating - Work more slowly
electrical signals (Nerve Impulses) Feedback System/ loop
- Muscle cells respond to nerve - Cycle of events in which a condition in
impulses by contracting the body is continually monitored,
3. ​Movement evaluated, changed, remonitored,
- Motion of the whole body, individual reevaluated, chuchcuhcu etc.
organs, single cells, and even the tiny Controlled condition
organelles inside a cell. - Monitored conditions such as body
4​. Growth temperature, blood pressure,
- Increase in body size glucose…
- May be increase in (1) size of existing Stimulus
cells (2) number of cells (3) amount of - Disruption that causes a change in a
material surrounding cells controlled condition
5. ​Differentiation > External environment = heat/ lack of oxygen
- Unspecialized cells become > Internal environment = blood glucose level
specialized cells.
- Specialized cells differ in structure and > COMPONENTS (Feedback System) 
function from the unspecialized cells
6.​ Reproduction 1. Receptor​ - monitors change in a
- The formation of new cells for growth, controlled condition and sends
repair, or replacement information = ​Input (nerve impulses)
- The production of a new individual 2. Control center​ - the brain, evaluates
the input it receives from receptors,
Homeostasis <<<<<<3   and generates ​output (information)
- Maintenance of relatively stable commands when they are needed.
conditions 3. Effector ​- body structure that receives
- Ensures that the body’s internal output from the control center and
environment remains constant despite produces ​a response that changes the
changes inside and outside the body. controlled condition.
- Is dynamic, it can change over a Negative Feedback system
narrow range that is compatible with - Reverses a change in a controlled
maintaining cellular life processes. condition.
> ​blood pressure (BP)​, force exerted
Interstitial fluid by blood as it presses against the
- Large part of the internal environment walls of ​blood vessels (BV)
consists of the fluid surrounding body - Baroreceptors,​ pressure-sensitive
ceellsssss. nerve cells located in the walls of
BVss
 > send nerve impulses to the brain, Lower limb
which interprets and responds by - Attached to the trunk (buttock, thigh,
sending nerve impulses to heart. leg, ankle, and foot)
Groin​ - front surface, crease each side (thigh)
Positive Feedback Systems
- Strengthen or reinforce a change in Directional Terms
the body’s controlled condition. - Words that describe the position of
- The effector produces a physiological one body part relative to another.
response in the controlled condition. > ​Anterior​, front
> ​Posterior​, back
Homeostasis and Disease > ​superior​, upper part of the body
Disorder > ​inferior​, lower part of the body
- Abnormality of structure and/or > ​Medial​, midline/ imaginary vertical line
function > ​Lateral​, farther from midline
Disease > ​Intermediate,​ between two structures
- Term for an illness characterized by a > ​Ipsilateral​, same side as another structure
recognizable set of symptoms & signs. > ​Contralateral​, opposite side from “ “ “ “
Symptoms > ​Proximal​, nearer to a limb/ origin/ beginning
- Subjective changes in body that are > ​Distal,​ farther to a limb/ origin/ beginning
not apparent to the observer. >​Superficial,​ toward/on the surface of the
- Ex. headache, or nausea body
Signs > ​Deep,​ away from the surface of the body
- Objective changes
- Ex. bleeding, vomiting, fever, rash PLANES AND SECTIONS 
- Imaginary flat surfaces that pass
Aging and Homeostasis  through body parts (planes)
- normal process characterized by a Sagittal plane
progressive decline in the body’s ability to - Vertical plane; right angle
restore homeostasis. > Midsagittal plane
- ex. Wrinkled skin, white hair - Midline of the body; equal sides
> Parasagittal plane
Anatomical Terms  - Divides midline; unequal sides
- Specific vocabulary Frontal plane (Coronal plane)
Anatomical position - Divides into anterior and posterior
- Description of any human body part in - Right angle
a specific stance (Body is upright) Transverse plane (cross-sectional/
Prone position horizontal)
- Body is lying face down - Divides superior and inferior
Supine position - Right angle
- Body is lying face up Oblique plane
  - Passes through, with an ​angle
Body Regions  between transverse and sagittal/
transverse and frontal
Head​ - skull and face Section ​- cut of the body/organ along one
> skull, protects the brain plane
> face, front portion (eyes, nose, mouth, ...)
Neck​ - supports head and attached to trunk BODY CAVITIES 
> trunk, (chest, abdomen, and pelvis) - Spaces within the body that contain, protect,
Upper limb separate, and support internal organs.
- Attached to the trunk (shoulder,
armpit, arm, forearm, wrist and hand)
 > ​Cranial cavity​ - formed by cranial (skull)
bones and contains brain
> ​Vertebral (spinal) canal​ - formed by
vertebral column and contains spinal cord

> ​Thoracic cavity (TC)​ - chest cavity

- Pericardial cavity​, surrounds heart
- Pleural cavity,​ each surrounds a lung
- Mediastinum​, central portion of TC
> ​Abdominopelvic cavity ​- ​diagram to groin
- Abdominal cavity​, (stomach, spleen,
liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and
most of the large intestine);​ t​ he serous
membrane = peritoneum
- Pelvic cavity​, (urinary bladder,
portions of the large intestine, and
internal organs of reproduction)

ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS  

Diaphragm ​- dome-shaped muscle

Viscera​ - organs inside thoracic & abdominal
Membrane​ - thin, pliable tissue that covers,
lines, partitions, or connects structures Umbilicus​ - belly button divide the abdominal
>​ Serous membrane cavity into ​quadrants.
- slippery double-layered; parts;
- Parietal layer​, which lines the walls of
the cavities
- Visceral layer​, covers and adheres to
the viscera within the cavities
- Serous fluid, ​lubricating fluid between
two layers & allows viscera to slide
- Pleura, ​the serous membrane of the
pleural cavities
- Pericardium,​ the serous membrane of
the abdominal cavity