Biology

2015-2016 Exam Review

Table of Contents
1

Pg 2-8 : Cell Biology

Pg 9-22 : Biochemistry
Pg 23-36 : DNA Replication and Protein
Synthesis
Pg 37-44 : Genetics
Pg 45-47 : Review of Genetic Crosses
Pg 48-55 : Autosomal Linkage Review
Pg 56-61 : Biotechnology
Pg 61: Plants

Cell Biology
2. What are 3 components of the cell theory
Cell Theory
1. All Living organisms are composed of cells, and the products of cells. (e.g. hair)
2. Cells are the smallest units of life
3. Cells only come from pre-existing cells
3. What are the functions of life? How does a paramecium fulfill all of these
functions in just one cell?
Functions of Life
Metabolism: chemical reactions inside the cell. ie: respiration, excretion
Response to Stimuli: also known as sensitivity
Reproduction: production of offspring (sexual or asexual)
Homeostasis: maintaining relatively stable conditions inside the body
Nutrition: obtaining food
Paramecium
Cilia for movement in response to stimuli
Contractile Vacuole fills up with water to maintain tolerable cellular water levels
Food Vacuole contains smaller consumed organisms
Nucleus during asexual reproduction will divide into 2
Cytoplasm where metabolic reactions take place
Cell Membrane control which chemicals come in or out of cell (including O2),
excretion via diffusion
4.
5. What are stem cells? Compare and contrast the two main types of stem cells

6. What are the pros and cons of the two main types of stem cells
Embryonic Stem Cells
Pros
1. Almost unlimited growth potential
2. Can differentiate into any cell type
3. Less chance of genetic damage
Cons
1. Increased risk of becoming tumour cells
2. Removing these stem cells kills the embryo
Playing God?
When does life begin?
Adult Stem Cells
Pros
1. Less chance of developing tumours
2. Removal does not kill the adult which they come from
Cons
1. Difficult to obtain (few sources, and buried deep in tissues)
2. Less growth potential than embryonic stem cells
3. Limited capacity to differentiate
4. Only 100% compatible to the adult which taken from
7. What are the current stem cell therapy uses? What are some future uses of stem
cell therapy
8. What are the structures/ organelles present in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
What are the functions of these structures/organelles? Be able to label these on a
micrograph
10. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Prokaryotes
Do not have membrane bound
organelles
Naked circular DNA (no proteins
associated)
DNA in nucleoid region
RIBOSOMES: free floating in cytoplasm
No mitochondria: uses plasma
membrane for respiration

Eukaryotes
Membrane bound organelles present
DNA wrapped around histone proteins
DNA within the nucleus
Ribosomes: attached to male RER or
free floating in cytoplasm
Has mitochondria for aerobic cellular
respiration

11. Compare and contrast animal and plant cells

Animal
No chloroplasts
No cell wall
Usually no large central vacuole
Carbohydrates stored as glycogen
Have lysosomes
Amorphic shape

Plant
Chloroplasts usually present
Cell wall present, rigid shape, often with
straight edges
Have large central vacuole
Carbohydrates stored as starch or
cellulose
Generally lack lysosomes
Rigid shape, often with straight edges

12. how do prokaryotic cells multiply

They divide asexually by binary fission
13. What is a phospholipid? Describe the 2 main parts of a phospholipid.
Phospholipids are the foundations of the cell membrane, they are amphipathic
which is
Hydrophilic: polar, water loving head
Hydrophobic: non polar, water fearing tails, made of 2 fatty acids chains
14. What is the fluid mosaic model
The cell membrane is fluid
thus is can change shape
the fluid mosaic model proposes that proteins float in the fluid lipid bilayer (like
boats on a pond)
15. Why is cholesterol important to the fluid model?
Cholesterol molecules allow for this fluidity.
16. In the 1930s Davson and Danelli proposed layers of protein adjacent to the
phospholipid bilayer, on both sides of the membrane. They proposed this sandwich
model because they thought it would explain how membranes, despite being very
thin, are a very effective barrier to the movement of some substances. It was
disproved by things such as improvements in biochemical techniques which allowed
proteins to be extracted from membranes. They were found to be varied in size and
globular in shape so were unlike the type of structural proteins that would form
continuous layers on the periphery of the membrane. Also the proteins were
hydrophobic on at least part of their surface so they would be attracted to the
hydrocarbon tails of the phospholipids in the centre of the membrane
19. Describe the three main types of passive transport
Diffusion: Random movement of any molecule from high to low concentration
Osmosis: diffusion of water across a membrane. Water moves from high
concentration to low concentration or moves from low concentration to high
concentration
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Facilitated Diffusion: Passage of molecules from high to low concentration through a

protein channel
20. What is osmosis? What are the three types of solutions? What will happen to a
cell if it is dropped in each solution
Osmosis: diffusion of water across a membrane. Water moves from high
concentration to low concentration or moves from low concentration to high
concentration
The Three solutions are
isotonic
Hypertonic
and Hypotonic
If dropped in isotonic
Cell remains in equilibrium
If dropped in hypertonic
water will flow out of the cell so it shrinks
hypotonic
Water moves into the cell (which has more solute, less H20) so cell expands
22. What is spontaneous generation
23. What are the 4 conditions that needed to be fulfilled for the first cell to be
created
1. Productions of simple organic compounds
2. Assembly of the molecules into polymer
3. Development of a mechanism for inheritance
4. Formation of membranes
25. What is the endosymbiosis theory? What is the evidence to support this theory?
What are the problems?
Endosymbiosis: when organism lives within the other and they both benefit
Evidence
1. Chloroplasts and mitochondria are surrounded by a double membrane
2. Mitochondria and bacteria prokaryotic have a similar size
3. Mitochondria and bacterial ribosomes are very similar in size and shape
4. Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA which is circular like bacteria
5. Mitochondria divide in a process similar to binary fission like bacteria
6. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic use the same code dictionary to make proteins
Problems
the ability to engulf another cell and have it survive in the cytoplasm does not
guarantee that thee host cell can pass it on to its offspring the genetic code to
synthesize the newly acquired organelle
when chloroplasts or mitochondria are removed from cell, they cannot survive on
their own
28. What are the 4 main phases of mitosis? What are the main events that happen

in each stage

29. What is Cytokinesis? How is cytokinesis different in plants and animals?

Cytokinesis: cells can divide after mitosis when two genetically identical nuclei are
present in a cell. The process of cell division is called cytokinesis
in animals the plasma membrane is pulled inwards around the equator of the cell to
for a cleavage furrow. This is accomplished using a ring contractile protein
immediately inside the plasma membrane at the equator. The proteins are actin and
myosin and are similar to proteins that cause muscle contraction. When the
cleavage furrow reaches the center, the cell is pinched apart into 2 daughter cells
In plants, vesicles are moved to the equator where they fuse to form tubular
structures across the equator. With the fusion of more vesicles these tubular
structure merge to form two layers of membrane across the whole equator. Which
develop into the plasma membranes of the two daughter cells and are connected to
the existing plasma membrane at the sides of the cell, completing the division of
the cytoplasm
The next stage in plants is for pectins and other substances to be brought in,
vesicles and deposited by exocytosis between the two new membranes. This forms
the middle lamella that will link the new cell walls. Both of the daughter cells the
bring cellulose to the equator and deposit I by exocytosis adjacent to the middle
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lamella. As a result each cell builds its own cell wall adjacent to the equator

31. What are cyclins? What is each cyclin responsible for?

Cyclins are used to ensure tasks in the cell cycle are properly and on time?
Cyclin D triggers cells to move from G0 to G1 and G1 to S
Cyclin E prepares for DNA replication in S
Cyclin A activates DNA replication inside the nucleus in S
Cyclin B promotes the assembly of the mitotic spindle and other tasks in the
cytoplasm to prepare for mitosis
32. calculate the mitotic index
Mitotic index = number of cells in mitosis/total number of cells
33. What is cancer?
Cells divide uncontrollably
Abnormally grown cells interfere and disrupt other cell functions and take in other
cells nutrients mutations occur in the genes that control cell division
34. What is the name of a chemical or agents that cause cancer
Carcinogens
What are some examples of these chemicals or agents
Smoking, smog

BioChemistry
1. What is the difference between organic and inorganic molecules
Organic Compounds
Contains both carbon and hydrogen
atoms
produced by living things
ex: sugar C12H22O11

Inorganic Compounds
All other compounds
can be found inside or outside the
bodies of organism
Ex: H2O, CO2

2.Why is carbon found in all organic molecules

Life is based on carbon compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acid
3. What is metabolism? Anabolism? Catabolism?
Metabolism: the sum of all the biochemical reactions that occur in an organism
Anabolism/ Anabolic Reactions
The synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules including the formation
of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions
Reactions require energy (ATP)
Ex: the synthesis of proteins, photosynthesis
Dehydration / Condensation Synthesis Reactions
a reaction in which smaller molecules are combined to create a larger one, In the
process water is produced
Catabolism
The breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules including the
hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers
Reactions release energy
Ex: digestion of food, cellular respiration
4. Draw a water molecule and how it will attach to other molecules
5. Contrast water and methane
Water and methane are both small molecules with atoms linked by covalent bonds
However, water is polar and can form hydrogen bonds wile methane is nonpolar and
does not form hydrogen bonds
6. What are the 6 main properties of water? Suggest one example for each as to
why it affects living organisms
1) high surface tension
the H bonds hold water molecules together giving h a surface like a transpire
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2) Cohesive
water molecules stick together
if you pull on one molecule it brings another with it because of h-bonding between
water molecules
3) adhesive
water molecules stick to other polar substances
its polarity allows it to attract other polar substances
drops in water
when water is evaporated out of a plant cell, adhesive forces cause water to be
drawn out of the neared xylem vessel keeping the cell walls moist so they can
absorb CO2 for photosynthesis
4) High specific heat capacity
its a measure of how well a substance resists changes in temperature
the specific heat capacity of water is 4 J/g
H bonds restrict the motion of water molecules
to increase the temperature of water, the H bonds must be destroyed
the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of water is relatively large
this means
5) High latent heat of vaporization
6) High boiling point
water is a liquid over a broad range of temperatures
7) Denser as a liquid than as a solid
When water is a slid it expands since it possesses a maximum # of H bonds which
hold water molecules
as it warms H-bonds break and water molecules
8) Excellent solvent
7. What is a hydrocarbon?
a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon.
8. What is a glyosidic linkage
The link that is formed between monosaccharides
9. What are the functional groups found in an amino acid
Every amino acid contains the same parts
1. An amino/amine group (NH2)
2. a carboxyl group (COOH)
3. a hydrogen
4. A specific R group (side chain)
11. What type of macronutrient contains the most energy per gram
Lipids contains the most energy per gram
12. Which compound type is principally used for energy
Lipids

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13. What is the functional group found in a fatty acid

Fatty acids are long chains of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group at one end of the
chain
14. What is the reaction called that forms the bonds between glycerol and the fatty
acids? What functional groups are involved in this reaction?
Dehydration and condensation. The groups are
Functional Group
Hydroxyl

Chemical Formula
-OH

Structural Formula
-O-H

Carboxyl

-COOH

Carbonyl

-COH
-CO

O
-C-O-H
O
-C-H

Amino

-NH2

Sulfhydryl

-SH

Phosphate

PO4

H
-N-H
-S-H
O
O

Examples
Alcohol
ex: ethanol
Carboxylic Acid
Acetic Acid
Aldehydes
acetaldehyde
Keyones
Acetone
Amine
Methylamine
Thiols
buthanethiol
Organic
Phosphates

-P
O
O
15. What is a condensation reaction? Hydrolysis?
Condensation
a reaction in which smaller molecules are combined to create a larger one
water os produced
Hydrolysis
Water is added to a larger molecule to break it up into smaller molecules
18. What is glycogen?
a type of alcohol
20. What are covalent (disulfide bridge) bonds in proteins
Disulfide bridge covalent bonds that forms between 5 of one side chain and 5 of
another side chain as well as hydrophobic interactions (hydrophobic amino acids
orienting themselves away from polar water)
Therefore, the amino acid sequence determines the 3-D conformation of a protein
Example: myoglobin (O2 carrier in muscle cells)

21. When are hydrogen bonds used?

they are used in water
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22.
dropped oil into water
23. What is the importance of enzymes
Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy required for the reaction
24. What is a substrate
the substance of which an enzyme reacts to
25. What is an active site
a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction.
26. What is an allosteric site
Some enzymes have receptor sites away from the active site called ALOSTERIC
SITES
These enzymes are usually proteins made of several subunits each with an active
site
Substance that bind to the allosteric sites may inhibit or stimulate (increase) the
enzyme activity
27. What is an activator
An activator is a protein (transcription factor) that increases gene transcription of a gene or set
of genes.
28. What is allosteric inhibition? Allosteric activiation?
Activator
Binding an ACTIVATOR to an allosteric site stabilizes the protein conformation
this keeps all the active sites available for the substrates to bind to them
Inhibitors
Binding of an allosteric inhibitor (a type of non-competitive inhibitor) stabilizes the
inactive form of the enzymes
The binding of an activator or an inhibitor affects the activity of all the active sites
on the enzyme
29 What is negative feedback?
Negative feedback is a reaction that causes a decrease in function. It occurs in response to
some kind of stimulus. Often it causes the output of a system to be lessened; so,
the feedback tends to stabilize the system.
30. What is competitive and non-competitive inhibition
a) COMPETITIVE INHIBITION
These are molecules that are similar in shape to the substrate
They bind to the enzymes active site preventing the real substrate from binding
The molecule competes with the substrate for the active site
this can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration
Ex. Prontosil is an antibacterial drug
Bacteria require folic acid for replication of genetic material
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Prontosil binds to the enzyme that makes folic acid preventing other substrates from
binding
As a result, folic acid is no longer made and the bacterial cell dies
Since animal cells dont folic acids themselves, they do not have this enzyme and so
Prontosil has no effect on them
b) NON-COMPETITIVE INHIBITION
A molecule binds to the enzyme at a location other than the active site
This binding alters the shape of the enzyme, changing the shape of the active site
The enzyme is now dysfunctional because the substrate now cannot bind to the
active site
Adding more substrate will affect the reaction because the active site is unavailable
Ex. Cytochrome C Oxidose
31. State the factors that affect enzyme function
pH
each enzyme has a specific ideal pH. After removing that ideal pH denaturation will
happen thus causing the activity to drop
Temperature
after the ideal temperature denaturation will have a very drastic effect on the
enzyme
Substrate Concentration
increases until the point of saturation which after that, increasing concentration
does not affect reaction rates
Enzyme Concentration
The rate of reaction rises as the enzyme concentration rises
32. Explain how pH and temperate will chemically/ structurally affect an enzyme
pH
Each enzyme has a specific pH and after removing or changing that ideal pH,
denaturation will occur causing enzyme activity to drop
temperature
the same as pH, enzymes have an ideal temperature and when that is changed,
denaturation will occur and the activity will drop drastically
33. What are the different levels of structure of a protein? What bonds are
associated with each of these levels
There are 4 levels of protein structure
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quaternary
1) Primary Structure
Sequence of amino acids in a linear chain
each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids
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amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge ranger of
possible polypeptides
the number of amino acids in a polypeptide can be anything from 20 to tens of
thousands
Ex: insulin contain 51 amino acids; Human titin (a protein in the muscle tissue)
contains 34,350 amino acids. Mouse titin contains 34,350
If the sequence of a polypeptide molecule is incorrect the protein will not function
(example: if even one of those 51 amino acids in insulin is substituted for a different
one, the protein shape may be altered and the protein will not work
sequence is determined by the genetic code found in DNA
2) Secondary Structure
formed when a primary structure fold upon itself
there are 2 basic shapes
a)alpha helix (a-helix)
b) beta pleated sheet (b-pleated sheet)
*you can also have a random coil
the twisting and bending occurs because of interactions within the chain itself (ex. H
bonding)
a) ALPHA HELIX
found in the proteins of hair, wool, horns, feathers
b) BETA PLEATED SHEET
found in silk
3) Tertiary Structure
Involves the folding of secondary structures to form a globular (round, compact)
protein shape
Caused by interactions between the R groups in the amino acids
held together by many bonds
H-Bonds
dipole-dipole
London
Ionic
Covalent
Disulfide bridge
Disulfide bridge covalent bonds that forms between 5 of one side chain and 5 of
another side chain as well as hydrophobic interactions (hydrophobic amino acids
orienting themselves away from polar water)
Therefore, the amino acid sequence determines the 3-D conformation of a protein
Example: myoglobin (O2 carrier in muscle cells)
4) Quaternary Bonds
Occurs when two or more tertiary structures interact ti form a globular protein
structure
a protein may consist of a single polypeptide (ex. Myoglobin) or more than one
polypeptide such as hemoglobin (O2 carrier in blood)
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Hemoglobin
the heme group
contains an iron atom and is here the oxygen binds to hemoglobin
it is an example of a prosthetic group or a cofactor a non-amino acid part of a
protein
protein with prosthetic groups are called conjugated proteins
Ex: hemoglobin and chlorophyll

34. What is the difference between fibrous and globular proteins

Shape
Solubility
Organization
Function

Fibrous Proteins
Long
Insoluble in water
Secondary structure most
significant
Structural

Globular Proteins
Tightly folded, compact
Soluble in water
Tertiary structure most
significant
Functional (they do
something)

35. What is the difference between beta pleated sheets and alpha helix?
ALPHA HELIX spiral
found in the proteins of hair, wool, horns, feathers
BETA PLEATED SHEET more like a sheet
found in silk

36. How are monosaccharides converted into polysaccharides? Draw maltose

37.
38. What is the source of an unsaturated lipid? What are the 4 main ways to
describe unsaturated lipids
4 types
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monounsaturated fatty acids

polyunsaturated fatty acids
cis and trans fatty acids
examples, vegetable oil and fish oil
39. Annotate a diagram describing the induced fit model of the enzyme
enzyme changes shape of active site so substance fits perfectly. This allows some
enzymes to catalyze several different reactions
Starting from top and going clockwise
1. Substrates enter active site: enzymes changes shape so its active site embraces
the substrates (induced fit)
2. Substrates held in active site by weak interactions, such as hydrogen bonds and
ionic bond
3. Active sit (and R groups of its amino acids) can lower E A and speed up a reaction
by
acting as a template for substrate orientation
stressing the substrates and stabilizing the transition state
providing a favorable microenvironment
participating directly ibn the catalytic reaction
4. Substrates are converted into products
5. Products are released
6. Active site is available for two new substrate molecules

40. Contrast the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage

Excellent long term energy storage
1 g of fat contains more than twice as much energy as 1 g carbohydrates (9kcal/g in
lipids vs 4 kcal/g in carbs)

41. Draw the production of a generalized dipeptide by a condensation reaction

two amino acids form to make a dipeptide and water

42 Describe the function of protein
Proteins have many diverse structures and therefore many functions (structure
determined function)
Protein Function
Enzymes

Description
Assisting in chemical reactions
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Muscle Contraction

Cytoskeletons

Tensile Strengthening

Blood Clotting

Transport of nutrients and gases

Cell Adhesion

Membrane transport

Hormones
Receptors

Packing of DNA

Immunity

Storage

Pigments

Globular Proteins
Examples: Digestive enzymes
help breakdown the different
polymer molecules. Amylase
breaks starch into maltose
Proteins actin and myosin
together cause the muscle
contractions that make you move
Give shape to cells and form
spindle fibers during mitosis
Ex: Tubulin
Gives strength to skin, tendons,
ligaments, blood vessels
Ex: Collagens
Plasma proteins that stop
bleeding and repair damaged
blood vessels
Ex: Fibrin
Proteins in the blood transport
oxygen, carbon dioxide, iron,
lipids
Ex: hemoglobin transports O2
Membrane proteins that cause
adjacent cell membranes to stick
to each other
Used for facilitated diffusion and
active transport (Protein
channels and protein pumps)
Chemical messengers
Ex: insulin
Binding site in membranes and
cytoplasm for hormones,
neurotransmitters, tastes.
Smells, light
Histones are proteins that
associate with eukaryotic DNA
and keep it organized
Antibodies are proteins that
recognize foreign invaders
Casein is the protein of milk
which stores amino acids used
for developing baby mammals
Chemicals that absorb and reflect
light
Ex: Melanin
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43 Draw the structure of alpha and beta glucose

44 Draw the structure of a fatty acid with 6 carbon hydrocarbon chain

45 Draw Ribose

All the vertices have carbons

46 Describe how polar/ non polar amino acids are important for membranes
Protein Solubility
8 of the 20 amino acids are nonpolar
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the remaining 12 are polar (hydrophilic)

for globular proteins leaving the polar ones on the exterior (see tertiary structure)
this allows the protein to dissolve in water
If a protein contains less non-polar amino acids, the less soluble it will be

47. Describe the function of the following proteins, rubisco, insulin, immunoglobin,
rhodopsin, collagen and spider silk
Rubisco (Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylate)
found in plant cells
an important enzyme in photosynthesis
Rubisco fixes inorganic carbon in the form of CO 2 into organic carbon in the form of
simple sugars
Immunoglobulin
Also now as antibodies
they recognize specific pathogens and bond to them, flagging them to be destroyed
Collagen
of the proteins in the human body are collagen
give strength to ligaments, blood vessels
structure to teeth and bones
Insulin
Hormones made by the pancreas that promotes cells to absorb glucose and the liver
to produce glycogen, thereby lowering blood glucose levels
Rhodopsin
a vison pigment that absorbs light and sends a nerve impulse to the brain about the
light received
Spider silk
different types and functions
extremely strong for its density
48
49 What is an isomer? What are the 3 isomers that are all monosaccharides?
Molecules which have the same molecular formula but a different structure
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
50 What is denaturation? What can cause it?
A proteins shape is also determined by the environmental conditions in which the
protein is found
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the structure of a protein is sensitive to pH, temperature, salt concentration,

chemicals
If any of these conditions falls outside a favorable range, a proteins conformation is
altered and therefore its function is altered
When a protein loses its shape, we say it is denatured
These conditions do not alter the primary structure (amino acid sequence) therefore
if put bac into normal conditions, the protein could regain its original shape
(however if a sequence is disrupted (ex. With denaturing agent)) then the protein
will not regain its shape
a denatured protein does not usually return to its former structure
51 Be able to identify, fructose, galactose, deoxyribose, sucrose, lactose, fatty
acids, cellulose, starch, glycogen
Galactose
CH2OH
HO
C ---- O
OH
C
H C
H
C ---- C
H
H
OH
Fructose
CH2OH

O
C

HO

H
C

C -- C

CH 2OH

Deoxyribose

Correct with the 2 Hs on the bottom being moved above the Cs

Sucrose

20

Again the vertices are carbons

Lactose

Once again the vertices are carbons

Fatty Acids

Cellulose

21

Starch

Glycogen

22

DNA Section
2.
3. Draw a generalized nucleotide

4. Compare and contrast purine and pyrimidines

Purine
Nitrogen bases with a double ring structure
Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidines
Nitrogen Bases with a single ring structure
Cytosine, Thymine, and Uracil
5. Draw a generalized double stranded DNA with 6 nucleotides
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6. how are hydrogen bonds used in the structure of DNA

DNA forms a double helix
the helix is created by H bonds between nonconsecutive nucleotides
7. What is the bond called that forms between the sugar of one nucleotide and the
phosphate of ther other?
DNA forms a double helix
the helix is created by H bonds between nonconsecutive nucleotides
The 2 DNA strands will each have a phosphate at the end of one strand, and a sugar
at the opposite end
the end that has a phosphate is referred to as the 5 prime end ()
The end that has a sugar is referred to as the 3 prime end
The 2 strands are ANTIPARALLEL (because their 3 and 5 are at opposite ends)

8. How many h bonds are found between C and G? A and T?

There are 2 H bonds between Adenine and Thymine
There are 3 H bonds between Guanine and Cytosine
9. What does the 5 prime and 3 prime ends refer to.
the end that has a phosphate is referred to as the 5 prime end ()
The end that has a sugar is referred to as the 3 prime end
10

24

11. What are histones and nucleosomes and why are they needed
DNA is extremely long
If you took the DNA of a single cell and stretched it out into one long double helix, it
would measure 1.8m in length
It fits into a cell because it is very tightly packed which also keeps in organized
Just like thread is spun around to keep it organized, DNA is coiled around a group of
eight proteins called histones
The complex of histones and DNA is called a NUCELOSOME
It takes 200 nucleotides to form a nucleosome
The histones are positive , the DNA is negative - so they are strongly attached
Nucleosome are used to stop transcription.
Transcription happens when DNA is used as a template for creating an RNA strand.
For this to happen, the enzyme RNA polymerase must attach to the 3 end of a DNA
strand.
When DNA is organized in a nucleosome, the promoter region is inaccessible so
transcription cannot take place.
When the cell requires transcription, the enzymes will willingly alter the shape of the
nucleosome to allow the RNA polymerase to attach.

Histone Proteins
8 Histone proteins (4 types, 2 of each type) inside each nucleosome
1 histone protein outside each nucleosome which functions to organize and hold the
nucleosome together
A series of nucleosomes coil into chromatin fibres
The chromatin fibres then coil to form a supercoil
the supercoiled chromatin is what makes up a chromosome
A chromosomes is one unbroken double-stranded helix
Not only do nucleosomes keep DNA organized, they also prevent transcription
Transcription is when DNA is used as a template to produce an RNA strand. For this
to occur, the enzyme RNA polymerase must attach to the 3 end of a DNA strand
When DNA is organized in a nucleosome, the promoter region is inaccessible so
transcription cannot take place.
When the cell requires transcription, enzymes will alter the shape of the
nucleosome to allow the RNA polymerase to attach
12. How much of the DNA actually carries genetic information
1.5%
13. What are repetitive sequences? What can they be used for?
DNA contains genetic information
But in actuality only a small portion of DNA constitutes genes
Unique genes / Single Copy Genes / Codable Genes make up 1.5% of human
genetic material
These are the genes that carry out genetic information
the remainder (and majority) of DNA are repetitive sequence that have no known
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function (non-coding regions) called tandem repeats

Since repetitive sequence vary from person to person they are useful in DNA
profiling, which allows for DNA fingerprinting to identify sample from individuals
In eukaryotic cells, many genes are discontinuous. A single gene is interrupted with
a long non-coding sequence
14. What are introns and extrons
EXON: The coding sequence
INTRON: intervening, non-coding sequence

15.When during the cell cycle does DNA replicate

It replicates in the S phase
16.
Semiconservative replication:
DNA Replication
DNA replication is semiconservative
the parent double helix produces 2 daughter double helices
each daughter molecule will have a parental strand a daughter strand (an old strand
and new strand)
The new strand is made up of free floating nucleotides or deoxyribonucleoside
triphosphates that are found in the nucleus
Origin of replication:
Replication Forks: hundreds of v-shaped regions of replicating DNA molecules where
new strands are growing
DNA synthesis occurs at numerous different locations on the same DNA molecule
(hundreds in a human chromosomes)
The replication rate of eukaryotic DNA is 500 to 5000 base pairs per minute
A human cell typically requires a few hours to duplicate the 6 billion base pairs
DNA will replicate small segments of the larger strand at a time
So only small segments will be unwound and separated by helicase at any given
time
These segments are called replication bubbles
The junction where the 2 strands are still attached is called the replication fork
Replication Forks: hundreds of v-shaped regions of replicating DNA molecules where
new strands are growing
Complimentary strand

26

Leading Strand: synthesized as a single polymer in the 5 to 3 direction. The strand

is built continuously and in the same direction of helicase
Lagging Strand: also synthesized in the 5 to 3direction, but discontinuously in the
direction away from the replication fork and in the opposite direction of helicase
As a result, short fragments (1000-2000 nucleotides) are produced
Okazaki fragments: Series of short segments on the lagging strand. At the
beginning of each Okazaki fragment there will be a RNA primer

RNA Primer: 10-60 RNA nucleotides that temporarily attach to the 3 end of the DNA.
The purpose of the primer is to create a starting point for the DNA nucleotides to
attach
Primase: enzyme that polymerizes (synthesis) the RNA primer
Free floating deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates: the parent double helix produces 2
daughter double helices. Each daughter molecule will have a parental strand a
daughter strand (an old strand and new strand). The new strand is made up of free
floating nucleotides or deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates that are found in the
nucleus
17. Describe with reference to every enzyme, the process of DNA replication
1. Separation of DNA Strands
DNA Helicase: Unwinds the double helix by breaking the hydrogen bonds between
the complimentary base parts
Single Stranded Binding Proteins: (SSBs) Bind to the exposed DNA to block
hydrogen bonding
DNA Gyrase: relieves any tension brought about by the unwinding of the DNA
strands. It cuts both strands allowing them to swivel around each other, and then
reseals the cut strands
Origins of Replication
Replication Forks: hundreds of v-shaped regions of replicating DNA molecules where
new strands are growing
DNA synthesis occurs at numerous different locations on the same DNA molecule
(hundreds in a human chromosomes)
The replication rate of eukaryotic DNA is 500 to 5000 base pairs per minute
A human cell typically requires a few hours to duplicate the 6 billion base pairs
DNA will replicate small segments of the larger strand at a time
So only small segments will be unwound and separated by helicase at any given
time
27

These segments are called replication bubbles

The junction where the 2 strands are still attached is called the replication fork
2. Priming
RNA Primers: 10-60 RNA nucleotides that temporarily attach to the 3 end of the
DNA. The purpose of the primer is to create a starting point for the DNA nucleotides
to attach
Primase: enzyme that polymerizes (synthesis) the RNA primer
3. Making the Chain
DNA Polymerase III: with an RNA primer in place, DNA Polymerase III (enzyme)
catalyze the synthesis of a new DNA strand in the 5 to 3 direction by adding fee
floating deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates to the DNA strand using complimentary
base pairing rules
DNA is always synthesized in the 5-3 direction
This means a nucleoside that is being added will bond its phosphate group (at the 5
end) to a nucleoside that is already a part of the strand.
The next nucleoside will bond to the 3 end of the previous nucleotide with its 5 end
Leading Strand: synthesized as a single polymer in the 5 to 3 direction. The strand
is built continuously and in the same direction of helicase
Lagging Strand: also synthesized in the 5 to 3direction, but discontinuously in the
direction away from the replication fork and in the opposite direction of helicase
As a result, short fragments (1000-2000 nucleotides) are produced
Okazaki fragments: Series of short segments on the lagging strand. At the
beginning of each Okazaki fragment there will be a RNA primer
4. Removal of Primers
DNA polymerase I: removes the RNA primers from the leading and lagging strands
and replaces them with the appropriate deoxynucleotides
5. Filling in the Gaps
DNA Ligase: a ling enzyme that catalyzes the formation of a covalent bond from the
3 o 5 end of joining strand. (ONLY ON LAGGING STRAND)
6. Proofreading and Repair
DNA polymerase I and II: proofread the newly created strands checking for
mistakes
If there is a mistake, the enzymes act as an exonuclease and remove the incorrect
nucleotide and replaces it with the correct one
18. What are telomeres? What happens to them as cells divide?
DNA and Telomeres
Telomeres are areas of repetitive sequences found at the end of eukaryotic
chromosomes
they prevent deterioration of the chromosomes and prevent chromosomes from
28

attaching to other chromosomes

since during DNA replication, the enzyme cant replicate DNA all the way to the end
of the chromosome, the only part that is not replicated is a portion of the telomere
which is a non-coding region anyway
Overtime, after each cell division, the telomeres will get shorter and shorter
they are replenished by the enzyme telomere reverse transcriptase

1. 4 differences between DNA and RNA

RNA vs DNA
RNA
BLUEPRINT of the MASTER PLAN
Has a sugar ribose
RNA contains the base uracil
Single stranded

DNA
MASTER PLAN
Hs a sugar deoxyribose
Contains the base thymine
Double stranded

2. 3 types of RNA
Messenger RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA
3. What is the structure of mRNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies DNAs code & carries the genetic information in
the ribosomes
Long Straight chain of nucleotides
Made in the nucleus
Copies the DNA and leaves through the nuclear pores
contains the nitrogen bases (A, C, G, U) (no T)
carries the information for a specific protein
made up of 500 to 1000 proteins
Sequence of 3 bases called a codon
AUG methionine or start codon
UAA, UAG, or UGA stop codons
4. What is a ribosome? What is the structure of a ribosome?
Ribosomes are the organelle where translation takes place
they are extremely small, but abundant
Ribosomes hold the mRNA strand in place and are where the tRNA and bind the
mRNA bringing with it the appropriate amino acid
Ribosomes consist of 2 subunits

29

5. When is a protein made at a free ribosome? At a bound ribosome

free ribosome: within the cell
bound: Golgi apparatus
6. What are the three sits of the ribosomes and what occurs at these sites
A = attachment site: this is where tRNA enters the ribosome and attaches to the
mRNA
P = peptidyl site:
E = exit site: where the tRNA detaches from the ribosome and the mRNA strand
7. What is a polysome?
a group of ribosomes held together by a strand of messenger RNA that each
ribosome is translating.
8. Describe the structure of tRNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA): transfers amino acids to the ribosomes where proteins are
synthesized
The top 3 end is the acceptor stem. This is where the amino acid will bind only one
type of amino acid will bind to any given tRNA
The bottom is the anticodon. The anticodon is the codon that determines which
amino acid will bind to the tRNA strand at the acceptor stem. The anticodon is
complimentary to the codon on the mRNA strand that codes for the amino acid. The
codon for methionine is AUG so if this tRNA wanted to carry methionine its
anticodon would be UAC
9. How is amino acid added to tRNA
The anticodon is the codon that determines which amino acid will bind to the tRNA
strand at the acceptor stem. The anticodon is complimentary to the codon on the
mRNA strand that codes for the amino acid. The codon for methionine is AUG so if
this tRNA wanted to carry methionine its anticodon would be UAC
For the amino acid to bind at the acceptor stem, the process is catalyzed by a tRNA
activating enzyme
10.What is the one gene one polypeptide theory?
One gene one polypeptides
A single gene codes for one polypeptides
Not exactly true. After a polypeptide is created, it can be cleaved into different way
to produce proteins
Some proteins consist of more than one polypeptide
Each chain is controlled by a different gene
11. What are the 3 stages of transcription?
Initiation
The enzyme RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA double helix at the promoter
region.
PROMOTER REGION: a sequence of DNA upstream from the gene that contains a
lot of A-T base pairs. (Easier to break apart than G-C) Why: because there is only 2 H
30

bonds
RNA polymerase unwinds and separate the helix exposing the template strand
since RNA polymerase only binds at the promoter region it allows only the gene to
be transcribed
Elongation
Once the helix is open, RNA polymerase starts building a single stranded mRNA in
the 5 3 direction using RNA nucleotides and complimentary base pairing rules
Only the 3 5 strand of DNA is used. This is the template strand (or the antisense strand)
The other DNA strand is coding the strand
This strand is identical to the mRNA strand except that it has thymine instead of
uracil
Note: the promoter region does not get transcribed
as the DNA is transcribed it is rewound into its helix
Termination
The mRNA strand is synthesized until RNA polymerase reaches the terminator
sequence at the end of the gene
The mRNA strand will detach from the DNA template
This mRNA strand is called the primary transcript
12. Where does transcription occur?
In a prokaryotic cell, transcription and translation occur at the same time. In a
eukaryotic cell, transcription occurs in the nucleus,
13. What is the promoter region?
PROMOTER REGION: a sequence of DNA upstream from the gene that contains a
lot of A-T base pairs. (Easier to break apart than G-C) Why: because there is only 2 H
bonds
14. What is the difference between the coding and template strand? What direction
are theses
Coding Strand: Sense Strand 5 3 complementary to template and tRNA
Same as mRNA (U = T)
15. How is the primary transcript modified? What is the function of these
modification?
16. What are intron and exons? What is the name of the protein that causes this
modification?
Exons are the coding regions, introns is the non-coding region. Spliceosomes is the
protein.
17. What occurs after the mRNA is modified?
the cap and tail are added
18. Describe the 3 stages of translation
Initiation
The small subunit of the ribosome (either free floating or attached to the rough ER)
attaches to the mRNA
A transfer RNA molecule arrives
It brings an amino acid to the first three bases (codon) on the mRNA
31

the three unpaired bases (anticodon) on the tRNA link up with the codon
this is catalyzed by the enzyme ATPase
The oval thing is the ribosome
The larger sub unit containing the binding site for the tRNA join the complex
Elongation
Another tRNA molecule comes into place bringing a second amino acid
Its anticodon links up with second codon on the mRNA
A peptide bond forms between the two amino acids
This is catalyzed by the enzyme peptidyltranferase
The first tRNA molecule releases its amino acid and moves off into the cytoplasm
The ribosome moves along the mRNA to the next codon
Another tRNA molecule brings the next amino acid into place
A peptide bond joins the second and third amino acids to form a polypeptide chain
the process continues
the polypeptide chain gets longer
Termination
Elongation continues until a termination (stop) codon is reached near the 3 end
The polypeptide is then complete
A protein release factor will come to release the last tRNA from the last amino acid
The polypeptide can now be released from the ribosome and the ribosome will
disassociate
19. Where does translation occur?
In a prokaryotic cell, transcription and translation occur at the same time. In a
eukaryotic cell, translation occurs in the cytoplasm.
22. mRNA describes the amino acid
23. What is the purpose of
a) Spliceosomes
Spliceosomes cut the introns out and join the remaining exons together
b) RNA Polymerase
The enzyme RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA double helix at the promoter
region.
RNA polymerase unwinds and separate the helix exposing the template strand
since RNA polymerase only binds at the promoter region it allows only the gene to
be transcribed
c) Protein Release Factors
A protein release factor will come to release the last tRNA from the last amino acid
during translation
d) ATPase
During Translation A transfer RNA molecule arrives and brings an amino acid to the
first three bases (codon) on the mRNA. The three unpaired bases (anticodon) on the
tRNA link up with the codon. This is all catalyzed by the enzyme ATPase

32

e) Peptidyl transferase
Another tRNA molecule comes into place bringing a second amino acid
Its anticodon links up with second codon on the mRNA
A peptide bond forms between the two amino acids
This is catalyzed by the enzyme peptidyltranferase
f) tRNA activating enzyme
For the amino acid to bind at the acceptor stem, the process is catalyzed by a tRNA
activating enzym
24. What is the difference between a frameshift and a point mutation
Mutations
Frame Shift: one small addition or deletion of a base changes all of the codons
Original DNA: THE BIG RED ANT ATE ONE FAT BUG
THB IGR EDA NTA TEO NEF ATB UG?
Point mutation
One base is changed and could now code for a different protein
25. What are 3 types of point mutations?
Point Mutations
1) Missense mutation 0 results in an amino acid substitution
(UUU UUA from Phe to Leu)
2) Nonsense mutation results in a stop codon so that incomplete proteins are
produced (UUA UGA from Phe to Stop)
3) Silent Mutation produces a functioning protein because the codon still codes for
the same amino acid (UUU UUC)
26. What are 2 differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells.
Prokaryotic does not have a nucleus. Coupled transcription and translation can only
happen in Prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells contains just coding regions.
Prokaryotic have one big circular chromosome, Eukaryotic organized into different
chromosomes. Prokaryotes have only a single cell
27. What are 3 differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Coupled transcription-translation
Since there is no nuclear membrane, translation of a protein can start even before
RNA polymerase finishes transcribing the mRNA strand
In eukaryotes the mRNA strand has to be modified and transported out of the
nucleus to the ribosomes fro translation
All of prokaryotic DNA contains coding regions with the exception of
promoters and operons
This means there are no introns that need to be removed from the mRNA unlike in
eukarotic DNA
Smaller ribosomes
28. Why is it beneficial for genes to be controlled in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
42000 genes that exist code for proteins in humans but not all proteins are required
33

By switching genes off when they are not needed cells can prevent resources from
being wasted
A typical human cell normally espressos about 3% to 5% f its genes at any given
tme
Cancer results from genes that do not turn off properly Cancer cells have lost ther
ability to regulate mitosis resulting in uncontrolled cell division
Gene expression in eukaryotes is controlled by a variety of mechanisms that range
from those that prevent transcription to those that prevent expression after the
protein has been produced. 4 categories transcriptional, post-transcriptional,
translational, post-translational
29. What is an operon? What are the 3 parts of an operon?
Operons are groups of genes that function to produce proteins needed by the cell
Operons are made of
1. Structural Gene: code for the proteins needed
2. Promoter: are where RNA polymerase binds to the DNA
3. Operator: a short sequence of bases between structural genes and a promoter
30. Describe the lac and trp operons in e coli
The lac operon
Lactose is a sugar found in milk
if lactose is present E coli (the common intestinal bacterium) needs to produce the
necessary enzyme to digest it
normally genes do not function because a repressor protein is active and bound to
the DNA preventing transcription
When bound the RNA polymerase cannot attach, the protein must be removed
This is an inducible operon because the structural genes are normally inactive
The trp operon
Repressible operons are the opposite of inducible operons. Transcription occurs
continuously and the repressor protein must be activated to stop transcription
Tryptophan is an amino acid needed by E coli and the genes that code for proteins
that produce tryptophan are continuously transcribed as shown below
However if tryptophan is present in the environment E coli does not need to
synthesize it and the tryptophan-synthesizing genes should be turned off
This occurs when tryptophan binds with the repressor protein activating it
unlike the repressor discussed with the lac operon, this repressor will not bind to the
DNA unless it is activated by binding with tryptophan. Tryptophan is therefore a corepressor
The trp operon is an example of a repressible operon because the structural genes
are active and are inactivated when tryptophan when tryptophan is present
31.
Repressor
The trp operon is an example of a repressible operon because the structural genes
are active and are inactivated when tryptophan when tryptophan is present
34

Inducible
This is an inducible operon because the structural genes are normally inactive
32. What is methylation? Why does methylation occur? How do scientists study
methylation?
Methylation
The attachment of a methyl group to histone proteins can promote or inhibit
transcription (by either causing the DNA to unravel from the nucleosome or stay
tightly bonded to the nucleosome)
If the methyl group is attached directly to DNA transcription will be inhibited
because RNA polymerase cannot attach
The amount of DNA methylation varies during a lifetime and is affected by
environmental factors. Identical twins will have identical DNA but will have different
levels of methylation because they have different experience. Differences in the
expressed genes is why identical twins may not look or act exactly the same
33. What factors cause methylation
Environmental factors cause methylation
34. What are epigenetic tags?
Epigenetics is the study of cellular and physiological traits that are NOT caused by
changes in the DNA sequence. This is done via chemical modification (such as
methylation, phosphorylation, or acetylation) and are called epigenetic tags.
35. Explain reprogramming and implanting
Sperm and eggs develop from cells with epigenetic tags. When a sperm and egg cell
meet to form a zygote, the epigenome (the sum of all the epigenetic tags) are
removed through a process called reprogramming
About 1% of the epigenome is not erased and is passed on to the next generation.
This is called imprinting
Ex. A pregnant mother may develop gestational diabetes (temporary diabetes while
she is pregnant) As a result, high levels of glucose in the fetus can trigger
epigenetic changes to the fetus DNA giving the child as increased chance of
developing diabetes itself.
Example of Chart to fill in
Template
Strand
NonTemplate
Strand
mRNA
tRNA
Amino
Acids

ATG

TCG

GAA

GGG

GGA

TAC

AGC

CTT

CCC

CCT

UAC
AUG
Tyr

AGC
UCG
Ser

CUU
GAA
Leu

CCC
GGG
Pro

CCU
GGA
Pro

Need to Remember
DNA template: complementary to mRNA and coding strand
35

3 5
same as anticodons on tRNA (except U = T) and stop after stop
codon
Coding
3 GCGAATACGGTCATGC 5 Coding
Template
mRNA 5 CGCUUAUGCCUGUGUACG 3
Codon Chart

Template transcribes to become mRNA and then translates to become amino acids

Genetic Test Review

Chromosomes and Karyograms
Sex Chromosomes
Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that we have, 22 are known as autosomes. The 23 rd
pair is known as the sex chromosomes and they determine the sex of the individual.
There are 2 versions of this chromosome. A large sex chromosome is known as the
X chromosome
the smaller is known as the Y chromosome. Females have 2 X chromosome (XX)
and males have 1 X chromosome ad one Y chromosome (XY). Male sperm contain
either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome. IF an X chromosome fertilizes the egg.
36

The baby will be a girl. If a Y chromosome fertilizes the egg a boy will be born
Meiosis
In Sexual reproduction 2 sex cells (GAMETES) combine their DNA to create offspring
that is genetically different from their parents
Organisms that reproduce sexually get half their chromosomes from their father and
half from their mother
Normal human body cells SOMATIC CELLS have 46 chromosomes. We call this the
diploid numbers (2n)
Normal human sex cells gametes have 23 chromosomes this is called the haploid
number (n)

Species
Banana
Chicken
Cow

2n / Diploid #
22
78
40

N / Haploid #
11
39
20

Homologous Chromosomes
each chromosome has a different function. They contain different information that
determines what you look like and allows your organs to function. In humans there
are 23 different types of chromosomes. You get 1 of each type of chromosomes
from each of your parents. So in total you have 2 of each type of chromosomes (one
from mom, one from dad)
Homologous Chromosomes: are chromosomes of the same type. They have the
same size and shape and contain similar information. However they are not exactly
the same. One chromosome may code for blue eyes and the other chromosome
may code for brown eyes. But, they both code for eye colour.
Gametes: are formed by a process called MEIOSIS
Only special reproductive tissues in male and females are able to undergo meiosis
In meiosis the parent cell undergoes 2 chromosomes division and produces 4
daughter cells which are gametes. The gametes have half the chromosomes of the
original parent cell
The parent cell is diploid, the daughter cells are haploid
the daughters cells are genetically different from the parent cell

MEIOSIS
Interphase the parent cell grows and duplicates its DNA so that it is ready for
37

meiosis. Before meiosis begins all the chromosomes are double stranded
Prophase I:
1 diploid cell
nuclear membrane dissolves
Centrioles move into opposite poles of the cell
spindle fibres attach to chromosomes
Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes pair up
Crossing over can occur as well
Metaphase I
Chromosomes line up in their homologous pairs in the middle of the cell
Anaphase 1
Each chromosome separates from its match and move to opposite ends of the cell
ck Telophase I
Nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes at each end
The cells divide (CYTOKINESIS)
2 haploid cells (different from parents and different from each other)
Synapsis: when homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase I of meiosis
when this happens it is possible for crossing over to occur. The homologous
chromosomes intertwine and parts of the 2 intertwined chromatids to break off and
reattach to the open chromosome. This increases genetic variation
MEIOSIS II
Prophase:
Starts with 2 haploid cells
the nuclear membrane disintegrates
new spindle fibres attach to the chromosome
Metaphase II
The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell (in single file)
Anaphase II
the double stranded chromosomes separate into single strands and move to
opposite poles
Telophase II
nuclear membranes reform around the chromosomes at each end
the cytoplasm separate (CYTOKINESIS) creating 4 haploid daughter cells
these are gametes
Random Assortment
During metaphase I when the chromosomes line up in their pairs in middle of the
cell they line up randomly. (It is not as though all maternal chromosomes line up on
one side and the paternal chromosomes on the other)
This allows for different combinations of chromosomes producing different gametes.
IN fact since humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, that means that means that
youc an form 223 = 83 888 608 gametes. This is why you and your siblings are not
38

exactly the same. Crossing over also adds to the variation.

Nondisjunction Disorders
Mutations
Mendelian Genetics
Monohybrid Crosses
Incomplete Dominance

incomplete Dominance
Incomplete dominance occurs when the characteristics blend together in the
heterozygous genotype
for example in snapdragons
GenoType
Phenotype
R R
C C
red
CWCW
White
R W
C C
Pink
Example: a red snap dragon is crossed with a pink snapdragon. Determine
the genotypes and phenotypes of the possible offspring
P: CRCR
x CRCW
CR
CR
CW
CR
C
CRCR
CW
CRCW
The genotype possibilities are homozygous red and heterozygous
the phenotype possibilities are red and pink
R

Co-Dominance

Codominance
Codominance occurs when both alleles are expressed at the same time
for example in Shorthorn cattle
Genotype
Phenotype
HrHr
Red hair
w w
H H
White hair
r w
HH
Roan (red and white hair)
Example: a red bull is crossed with a Roan cow, what are the possible
phenotype and genotype of the offspring?
P:
HrHr x HrHw
G:
Hr
HrHw
Hr
Hw

Hr
HrHr
HrHw
39

The phenotype possibilities are red and roan

the genotype possibilities are homozygous red and heterozygous
Multiple Alleles
Multiple alleles occurs when there are or than two alleles for a gene
For example human blood type
Ia

dominant
dominant
recessive

Blood Type
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O

Genotype
Ia Ia
Ib Ib
Ia Ib
ii

Example: a female with blood type O is crossed with a male with blood type
AB, What are the possible blood types of their children
P: ii x IaIb
i
Ia Ib
i
IAi
IBi

IA
IB

the possible blood types are Type A and Type B

Genotype is 1 heterozygous type A : 1 heterozygous Type B
Dihybrid Crosses
Dihybrid crosses involve looking at Two different genes
E.g T = tall t = short R = round r = wrinkled
According to the Law of Independent Assortment a plant that is heterozygous for 2
traits will form four different gametes
T

TR Tr tR tr
The combinations that are produced depend on how the chromosomes line up
during metaphase in meiosis I
The punnet square for a dihybrid cross had 16 (vs 4 squares for a monohybrid cross)

TR
tR

TR
TTRR
TtRR

tR
TtRR
ttRR

Tr
TTRr
TtRr

tr
TtRr
ttRr
40

Tr
tr

TTRr
TrRr

TtRr
ttRr

TTrr
Ttrr

Ttrr
ttrr

Ex 1: yellow seeds (Y) are dominant over green seeds (y). Round seeds (R) are
dominant over wrinkled seeds (r). If two plants are crossed what will be the
phenotype and genotype rations of the F1 generation
YyRr x YyRr
YR Yr yR
yr
YR
Yr
yR
YR
YYRR
YYRr
YrRR
Yr
YYRr
YYrr
YyRr
yR
YyRR
YyRr
yyRR
yr
YyRr
Yyrr
yyRr
Genotype: 1 homozygous yellow homozygous round
2 homozygous yellow heterozygous round
2 heterozygous yellow, homozygous round
4 heterozygous yellow, heterozygous round
1 homozygous yellow , homozygous wrinkled
2 Heterozygous yellow homozygous wrinkled
1 Homozygous green, homozygous round
2 homozygous green heterozygous round
1 homozygous green, homozygous wrinkled

Yr
YyRr
Yyrr
yyRr
Yyrr

Test Crosses
Sex Linkages
Polygenic Inheritance

Problem 1
In a particular species of cats there are 4 eye colour phenotypes: blue, green,
amber and brown. Eye colour is controlled by 3 genes A B and C. If a cat has
only recessive alleles (aabbcc) the cat will have blue eyes. The presence of
at least 1 dominant allele will result in green eyes. The presence of at least 1
dominant allele for 2 genes will result in amber eyes. The presence of at
least 1 dominant allele for all 3 gnes will result in brown eyes
P:
AaBBCc x aabbCC
G: ABC/ABc/aBC/abc
abC

abC

ABC
AaBbCC

ABc
AaBbCc

aBC
aaBbCC

aBc
aaBbCc
41

bold is dominant
phenotype ratio: 1 brown : 1 amber
Problem 2
The height of spike weed is a result of polygenetic inheritance involving three
genes, each of which can contribute 5 cm to the plant. The base height of
the weed is 10 cm, and the tallest plant can reach 40 cm
a) If a tall plant (AABBCC) is crossed with a base height plant (aabbcc) whait
is the height of the F1 plants
P: AABBCC x aabbcc
ABC
x abc
ABC
Therefore the height of F1 is 25 cm

Abc
AaBbCc

b) What are the phenotypes of the offspring

AaBbCc
x AaBbCc
ABC/Abc/aBC/abc/aBc/abC/AbC/ABc
Terms
alleles:
Review of Meiosis me
In Sexual reproduction 2 sex cells (GAMETES) combine their DNA to create offspring
that is genetically different from their parents
Organisms that reproduce sexually get half their chromosomes from their father and
half from their mother
Normal human body cells SOMATIC CELLS have 46 chromosomes. We call this the
diploid numbers (2n)
Normal human sex cells gametes have 23 chromosomes this is called the haploid
number (n)

Species
Banana
Chicken
Cow

2n / Diploid #
22
78
40

N / Haploid #
11
39
20

Homologous Chromosomes
each chromosome has a different function. They contain different information that
determines what you look like and allows your organs to function. In humans there
42

are 23 different types of chromosomes. You get 1 of each type of chromosomes

from each of your parents. So in total you have 2 of each type of chromosomes (one
from mom, one from dad)
Homologous Chromosomes: are chromosomes of the same type. They have the
same size and shape and contain similar information. However they are not exactly
the same. One chromosome may code for blue eyes and the other chromosome
may code for brown eyes. But, they both code for eye colour.
Gametes: are formed by a process called MEIOSIS
Only special reproductive tissues in male and females are able to undergo meiosis
In meiosis the parent cell undergoes 2 chromosomes division and produces 4
daughter cells which are gametes. The gametes have half the chromosomes of the
original parent cell
The parent cell is diploid, the daughter cells are haploid
the daughters cells are genetically different from the parent cell

MEIOSIS
Interphase the parent cell grows and duplicates its DNA so that it is ready for
meiosis. Before meiosis begins all the chromosomes are double stranded
Prophase I:
1 diploid cell
nuclear membrane dissolves
Centrioles move into opposite poles of the cell
spindle fibres attach to chromosomes
Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes pair up
Crossing over can occur as well
Metaphase I
Chromosomes line up in their homologous pairs in the middle of the cell
Anaphase 1
Each chromosome separates from its match and move to opposite ends of the cell
Telophase I
Nuclear membrane reforms around the chromosomes at each end
The cells divide (CYTOKINESIS)
2 haploid cells (different from parents and different from each other)
Synapsis: when homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase I of meiosis
when this happens it is possible for crossing over to occur. The homologous
chromosomes intertwine and parts of the 2 intertwined chromatids to break off and
reattach to the open chromosome. This increases genetic variation
MEIOSIS II
Prophase:
Starts with 2 haploid cells
the nuclear membrane disintegrates
43

new spindle fibres attach to the chromosome

Metaphase II
The chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell (in single file)
Anaphase II
the double stranded chromosomes separate into single strands and move to
opposite poles
Telophase II
nuclear membranes reform around the chromosomes at each end
the cytoplasm separate (CYTOKINESIS) creating 4 haploid daughter cells
these are gametes
Random Assortment
During metaphase I when the chromosomes line up in their pairs in middle of the
cell they line up randomly. (It is not as though all maternal chromosomes line up on
one side and the paternal chromosomes on the other)
This allows for different combinations of chromosomes producing different gametes.
IN fact since humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, that means that means that
youc an form 223 = 83 888 608 gametes. This is why you and your siblings are not
exactly the same. Crossing over also adds to the variation.

Sex Chromosomes
Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that we have, 22 are known as autosomes. The 23 rd
pair is known as the sex chromosomes and they determine the sex of the individual.
There are 2 versions of this chromosome. A large sex chromosome is known as the
X chromosome
the smaller is known as the Y chromosome. Females have 2 X chromosome (XX)
and males have 1 X chromosome ad one Y chromosome (XY). Male sperm contain
either an X chromosome or a Y chromosome. IF an X chromosome fertilizes the egg.
The baby will be a girl. If a Y chromosome fertilizes the egg a boy will be born

Review of Genetic Crosses

Monohybrid Crosses
Example 1
In pea plants, the allele for yellow seed colour (Y) is dominant over that for green
seed colour (y). Consider a cross between an individual that is homozygous
dominant for yellow and an individual who is homozygous recessive for greed seed
colour
parental phenotype: yellow and Green
Parental Genotype: YY
x
yy
Gametes
Y
y

44

Y
F1 Phenotypes: Yellow
F1 Genotypes: Heterozygous

y
Yy

Example 2
Two heterozygous pea plants with yellow seeds are crossed. Determine the
genotype and phenotype of the F2 generation
Parental Phenotypes: Yellow x Yellow
Parental Genotypes : Yy
x
Yy
Gametes
y y
Y Y
Y
y
Y
YY
Yy
Y
Yy
yy
F1 Phenotype: 3 yellow 1 Green
F1 Genotypes: 1 Homozygous Dominant : 2 Heterozygous : 1 Homozygous
Recessive
Example 3: Snapdragons
The expression of colour in snapdragons is incompletely dominant. White flowers in
snapdragons are coded by CW and red flowers are CR. The heterozygous condition
results in pink flowers CRCW. What are the genotype and phenotype ratios of the F1
generation when 2 pink flowers are crossed
Parental Phenotypes; Pink and Pink
Parental Genotypes: CRCW x
CRCW
R
W
Gametes C
C
x
C R CW
CR
C
CRCR
CW
CRCW
F1 phenotypes: 1 red 2 pink 1 white
F1 Genotypes: 1 homozygous red : 2 heterozygous pink
R

CW
CRCW
CWCW
: 1 homozygous white

Example 4: Co-Dominance
In some chickens the gene for feather colour black F B is co-dominant with white
feather FW. The heterozygous condition is known as erminette. Determine the
phenotypic and genotypic ratios for an erminette
Parental Phenotype: Black and Erminette
Parental Genotype: FBFB x
FBFW
FB
x
FBFW
FB
FW

FB
FBFB
FBFW

45

The Phenotype possibilities are black and erminette

the genotype possibilities are homozygous black and heterozygous
Example 5: Multiple Alleles in Blood Types

Blood Type
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O

Genotype
Ia Ia /Iai
Ib Ib/ Ibi
Ia Ib
ii

Suppose a father of type A blood whose mother was of type O and a mother of type
B blood whose father was type O have a child. What is the probability that their
child type O
Parental Phenotype: Type A
x Type B
Parental Genotype:
Iai
x Ibi
Gametes
Ia i
x Ib i
Ib
i
a
a b
I
Ii
Iai
b
i
Ii
Ii
There is a 25 percent chance of having type O blood and 50% chance of carrying it
F1 Phenotype; 1 Type A : 1 Type AB : 1 Type B : 1 Type O
f1 Genotype: 1 homozygous O : 1 heterozygous A : 1 heterozygous B :
Dihybrid Crosses
Example 6: Yellow seeds (Y) are dominant over green seeds (y). Round seeds are
dominant over wrinkled seeds (r). if two plants that are heterozygous for BOTH
traits (dihybrid) are crossed what will be the phenotype and genotype ratio of the F1
generation
Parental Phenotype: yellow round x yellow round
Parental Genotype: YyRr
x YyRr
YR Yr
yR yr

YR
Yr
yR
yr

YR
YYRR
YYRr
YyRR
YyRr

Yr
YYRr
YYrr
YyRr
Yyrr

yR
yYRR
yYRr
yyRr
yyRr

yr
YyRr
Yyrr
yyRr
Yyrr

Genotype: 1 homozygous yellow homozygous round

2 homozygous yellow heterozygous round
2 heterozygous yellow, homozygous round
4 heterozygous yellow, heterozygous round
1 homozygous yellow , homozygous wrinkled
46

2
1
2
1

SBI3UC

Heterozygous yellow homozygous wrinkled

Homozygous green, homozygous round
homozygous green heterozygous round
homozygous green, homozygous wrinkled

Autosomal Linkage

Linkage Group: A pair or set of genes on the same chromosome which tend to be
inherited together
Mendels law of independent assortment does not apply to these genes because
they are on the same chromosome
Genetic Linkage Analysis is a statistical method that is used to associate
functionality of genes to their location on chromosomes
The Main Ideas/Usage
Neighboring genes on the chromosome have a tendency to stick together when
passed on to offspring
47

Therefore if some disease is often passed to offspring along with specific markergenes then it can be concluded that the genes which are responsible for the disease
are located close on the chromosome to these markers
Test Crossing
is a cross of an unknown dominant parent with a homozygous recessive individual
to help determine the genotype of the unknown parent depending on the phenotype
of the offspring
Backcrossing
is a crossing of a hybrid with one of its parents or an individual genetically similar to
its parent, in order to achieve offspring with a genetic identity which is closer to that
of the parent
Gametes
Making the Gametes
Previously we have written our genotypes as, for example TtLl this form does not
represent which alleles are linked on the same chromosome
When we represent gene linkage we write the alleles together that are found on the
same chromosome
FL
fl
here FL and fl are linked on the same chromosome
Note* the dominant alleles DO NOT need to be linked
P : Pl
pL

pL
pl

pL
pl

Pl
Pl
pL
Pl
pl

pL
pL
pL
pL
pl

Example with Linkage

Long ears and blonde fur in the Rabid rabbit are dominant characteristics found on
chromosome 5. The corresponding recessive characteristics are small ears and
black body. A rabbit homozygous for long and blonde is crossed with a homozygous
recessive rabbit. Deduce the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a test
cross on the F1 rabbits
L long
l short

48

B blonde
b black
Parent Phenotypes
Parent Genotype
Gametes

Long Blonde
LB
LB
LB

Small Black
lb
lb
lb
LB
LB
lb

lb

Test Cross
Parent Phenotype
Genotype
Gamete

lb

Phenotype:
black

F1
LB
Lb
LB , lb

Small black
lb
lb
lb

LB
LB
lb

lb
lb
lb
long and blonde

small and

Autosomal Linkage with Crossing Over

Sometimes in meiosis, homologous chromosomes exchange parts in a process
called crossing over, or recombination
Note: recombinants are any combination of alleles that are not the same as the
parental combinations
Recombination, which occurs in prophase I of meiosis can split the two alleles
inherited from a parent, giving recombinant types.
Crossing over is rare and therefore, recombinant tend to be fewer in number than
parental
the percentage of offspring showing the recombinant types can give an estimate of
how close the two genes are to each other on the chromosome. The closer the
genes are the fewer recombinant types should occur
Genotypes for linked genes can be shown as
A
B
a
b
This is an example of a parental combination
49

This genotype would give the same phenotype as

A
b
a
B
but this is an example of a recombinant
Practice
Write the parental gametes and the recombinant gametes for the following
examples
a) aB
parental gametes:
aB, Ab (the same as the parents)
Ab
recombinant gametes:
ab, AB
b) Rw
rW
parental Rw +_ rW
recombinant: RW + rw
c) gY
Gy
parental Gy + gY
recombinant GY + gy
Example of Linked Genes
From the work of William Bateson who studied the sweet pea. He was looking at 2
genes; flower colour (P-purple and p-red) and the shape of the pollen gran )L long
and l round). He crossed PPLL and ppll and then self-crossed (backcrossed) the
resulting F1 generation to create PPLl in the F2 generation. According to Mendeliam
genetics the expected ratios would be 9:3:3:1. Instead he found an increased
number of the parental combinations PPLL and ppll
Phenotype and Genotype
Purple Long (PpLl)
Purple Round (Ppll)
Red Long (ppLl)
Red Round (ppll)
P: PL
pl

Observed
284
21
21
55

Expected from 9:3:3:1

216
72
72
24

pl
pl

Gametes: P: PL
pl
r: Pl
pl
Parental

pl

Pl
PL
pl

pl
pl
pl

Recombin
ant
Pl
Pl
pl

pL
pL
pl

50

Recombinant are recognized by

unpredicted combinations of characteristics
low frequency of new combinations of phenotypes
Statistical difference from ratios expected from either dihydrib and unlinked
(9:3:3:1) or monhybrid with no linkage (3:1)
Example
In wild blueberries the genes for sweetness and size are linked. The gene for
sweetness is dominant to sourness and small berries are dominant to large berries.
A heterozygous small sweet berry plant was test crossed and the results were
Small, sweet 215
Large sour
212
Small sour
16
large sweet
20
1. Let S = small s = large, W = sweet and w = sour
2. We are told the first parent is heterozygous and that the genes are linked. Since
we have 4 phenotypes crossing over must have occurred
3. Determine the linkage pattern via the F1 offspring. How do we know which are
linked
very simply by looking at the bumbers. The 215 and 212 are the parental
combinations of alleles this means that SW are linked on one chromosome and sw
are linked on ther other
4. Prove it with a Punnet square
Parent Phenotype
Parent Genotype
Gamete

Small, Sweet
SW
sw
SW, sw

Large Sour
sw
sw
Sw

Autosomal Linkage Question

54.
Leaf Colour and seed shape are linked genes in the Soss Sage. A Sage plant that
had green leafs and square seeds was test crossed with a plant that had yellow
leaves and long seeds. All the offspring had green leaves but half of them had long
seeds and the other half had square seeds. Deduce the genotype of the parent that
had green leaves and square seeds. Determine the F1 if this parent had selfpollinated

51

G green
g yellow
S square
s long
P : green
Square

yellow
Long

GS
Gs

gs
gs

F1
gs

Green square
GS
gs

Green long
Gs
gs

GS
GS
GS
GS
Gs

Gs
GS
Gs
Gs
Gs

Find if it had self-pollinated

P :

GS
Gs

GS
Gs

Gametes: GS + Gs
F1
GS
Gs

Phenotype: 3 green square : 1 green long

55.
The Qad Rat is normally square and has furry whiskers but the recessive
characteristics of triangular and smooth whiskers still exist. The genes are known to
be both on chromosome 2. A square Rat with smooth whiskers was crossed with a
triangular Rat with furry whiskers. All the offspring were square with furry whiskers.
When each of these was crossed with a triangular rat with smooth whiskers the
offspring were always half square with smooth whiskers and half triangular wit furry
whiskers. Deduce the genotypes of the parent Rats and the offspring of the second
cross
S square
s triangle
F furry
f smooth
52

P : SF
Sf

x sF
sF
sF
SF
sF

Sf

F1 :

SF
sF

x sf
sf
Sf
Sf
sf

sF

sF
sF
sf

Prep Ones
57. The coat colour of the Pancre Ass is normally brown but there is a recessive
allele that causes purple patches. Also the tail normally has a tuft but a recessive
allele causes the tail to be plain. These genes are linked. An Ass with brown coat
and tufted tail is mated to one that has a patchy coat and a plain tail. The baby Ass
has two dominant phenotypes. Later it was mated to a homozygous recessive and
the baby had a patchy coat and tufted tail. Explain using a genetic diagram.
B Brown
b purple
T tuft
t - plain
P:

brown tuft
BT

patchy coat plain tail

bt
bt

F1
BT
BT
Bt

bt
F1: BT
bt

bt
bt

F2:
Parental Gametes
BT
BT
bt

bt
bt
bt

Recombinant Gametes
Bt
bT
Bt
bT
bt
bt

patchy + tuft
this is possible due to recombination

53

58. The Chocolate Moose can have brown or yellow fur and either a rounded nose or
a pointed one. Brown and round are the dominant characteristics and the genes are
linked. A moose pure breeding for brown fur and round nose was crossed with one
with yellow fur and pointed nose. All the baby Moose born had brown fur and a
round nose. One of these was test crosses and the offspring numbers were
21 brown fur and round nose
20 yellow fur and pointed nose
2 brown fur and pointed nose
3 yellow fur and round nose
B = Brown
b = Yellow
R = Round
r = pointed

P:

BR
BR

br
br

F1

BR
BR
br

br

F1:

BR
br

br
br

54

3.5

Biotechnology

Biotechnology
any technological application that uses living systems and organisms to make useful
products
Molecular biologists use living biological organisms or biological molecules as tools
using these tools, molecular biologists can cut, join, and replicate DNA
1.
Genetic Engineering
The deliberate manipulation of genetic material modifying the characteristics of an
organisms by changing (manipulating) its DNA
It is possible to move genetic material from one species to another because the
genetic code is universal
All organisms use the same nitrogenous bases (All use the bases ACTG)
In all organisms, the same codon codes for the same amino acid (i.e: in all
species, AUG codes for the amino acid methionine)
For Example: human and other genes are routinely put into bacteria in order
to synthesize products for medical treatment and commercial use (i.e insulin,
growth, hormone, and vaccines)
Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA: a fragments of DNA composed of sequences originating from
at least 2 different sources
Individuals that receive genes from other species are considered transgenic
organisms from the process of gene transfer
Agricultural Benefits: increase in crop yields: disease resistance: crop longevity
Hypothetically
If we could insert a gene into another organisms genome (DNA), that organisms
would express that gene (make the protein the gene codes for)
To do this, we would need molecular scissors to cut the gene sequence from our
original source and molecular glue to insert the gene sequence into the host
organisms DNA
Restriction Endonucleases
Also known as Restriction Enzymes are molecular scissors that can cleave, cut,
double stranded DNA at specific base-pair sequences
Bacterial Enzymes
Recognition Site: the specific sequence where the restriction enzyme makes it cut
usually palindromic (the same forwards as backwards e.g. AGGA) 4 to 8 nucleotides
long
Restriction enzymes act as an immune system in the bacterium. When a
bacteriophage (a virus) tries to inject its DNA into the bacteria, restriction enzymes
cut up the bacteriophage DNA into many fragments thus, preventing it from doing
any arm to the bacterium
Restriction endonucleases must be able to distinguish between foreign DNA
and their own DNA, otherwise they would cut up their own DNA
Methylases are enzymes that modify a restriction site by adding a methyl
55

group (CH4) and preventing the restriction endonucleases from cutting it. This
prevents the cell from cutting its own DNA
Foreign DNA in a cell will not be methylated and therefore may be broken down by
enzymes
Microorganism of
origin
Escherichia Coli

Enzyme

Recognition Site

EcoRl

5 GAATTC 3
3 CTTAAG 5

Serratia
Marcescens

Smal

5 GGGCCC 3
3 CCCGGG 5

Arthrobacter
luteus

Alul

5 AGCT 3
3 TCGA 5

Streptomyces
Albus

Sa/l

5 GTCGAC 3
3 CAGCTG 5

Haemophilus
Parainfluenzae

Hindlll

5 AAGCTT 3
3 TTCGAA 5

After Restriction
Enzyme Digestion
5 G
AATTC 3
3 CTTAA
G 5
5 GGG
CCC 3
3 CCC
GGG 5
5 AG
CT 3
3 TC
GA 5
5 G
TCGAC 3
3 CAGCT
G 5
5 A
AGCTT 3
3 TTCGA
A 5

a)
5ATTAGAGATGAATTCAGATTCAGATAGCAT3
3 TAATCTCTACTTAAGTCTAAGTCTATCGTA 5
5ATTAGAGATG
3 TAATCTCTACTTAA

AATTCAGATTCAGATAGCAT3
GTCTAAGTCTATCGTA 5

Sticky Ends: both fragments of the newly cleaved DNA have DNA nucleotides
lacking complimentary bases
Blunt Ends: the ends of the DNA fragments are fully paired
Restriction enzymes that produce sticky ends are more useful because these DNA
fragments can easily be joined to other DNA sticky ends fragments made by the
same restriction enzyme
Can easily be used to create recombinant DNA
DNA Ligase
The same restrictions endonucleases must be used on both DNA otherwise the 2
DNAs wont be able to bind together there needs to be complimentary base
56

pairing
DNA Ligase is used to join the cut fragments of DNA together
T4 DNA Ligase is an enzyme from T4 bacteriophage joins blunt ends together
Gene Transfer
Material Required
a vector (used to carry the gene into the host cell)
a host cell (which will express the gene make the protein)
Restriction enzymes (used to cut the DNA)
DNA Ligase (used to join DNA fragments together
Vectors
Vectors are a source of DNA that is used as a vehicle to transport foreign genes into
another cell
a vector must be capable of self-replicating inside a cell
Examples of vectors include bacterial plasmids and viruses
Plasmids
Remember plasmids are small circular pieces of DNA that can enter and exit the
bacterial cells
naturally exist in the cytoplasm of many types of bacteria and can move between
bacterial cells through conjugation
Bacterial cells are capable of taking up DNA from their environment in the form of
Plasmids. This process is called transformation
Are independent of the main chromosome of the bacterial cell
Often carry genes for resistance to chemicals, herbicides, and antibiotics
There is an endosymbiotic relationship between the plasmid and the bacteria
molecular biologists can cut open a plasmid (used restriction endonucleases) insert
a desired gene, and reseal it (using DNA ligase)
the bacteria cell can then take up the plasmid
Once inside the cell the bacterial machinery will then be able to replicate,
transcribe, and translate the plasmid DNA (with the new foreign gene)
Viruses
Contain genetic material (DNA or RNA) but are not alive (they need to be inside a
host cell to be able to replicate their DNA
Viruses can accept large amounts of DNA (more than plasmids)
A foreign gene can be inserted into a virus and the virus is then allowed to infect a
host cell
once inside, the host cells machinery (polymerase, ribosomes) will be able to
replicate, transcribe and translate the viral DNA, including the inserted gene,
RELP Analysis and Gel Electrophoresis
How do forensic scientists determine whos blood has been left at a crime scene
How are paternity tests conducted
Using restriction enzymes, a technique called Gel Electrophoresis and a concept
57

called RFLP
Individual have differences in their DNA sequences
Differences in coding regions (exons) may result in a mutation (ie Sickle Cell
Anemia)
Differences in noncoding regions (introns) may exist in the form of variations in the
number of repeating units
Gel Electrophoresis
the DNA fragments must be separated and purified from each other for analysis
using a process called gel electrophoresis. In this process the DNA fragments are
placed in wells on a jello like gel called agarose (or agar). The agarose is fibrous
and acts like a net
An electrical current is passed through the gel
Since DNA is negatively charged, the fragments of DNA are attracted to the positive
end
As the DNA fragments move through the agar, the small fragments move quickly,
but larger fragments move slowly because they get caught up in the fibres of the
gel.
A blue dye is added initially to the DNA fragments. When the dye reaches the
positive end, the power is turned off
A fluorescent dye is then used to stain the DNA fragments
Ideally this creates a band pattern that is unique to each individual
Molecular Markers are DNA fragments f known lengths. They may be run during a
gel electrophoresis so that the fragments of the sample DNA can be compared to
the markers to determine approximate length
Southern Blotting
In reality, the amount of DNA is usually so large and the bands too numerous that
instead of seeing individual bands a large smear is seen on the gel
In a process called Southern Blottinbg, the DNA from the gel can be transferred to a
nylon membrane
The nylon membrane is placed against an X-ray film to read an autoradiogram
which will show the band pattern
Steps to Southern Blotting
1. After gel electrophoresis, smears appear due to a high volume of DNA
2. A sheet of nitrocellulose (nylon membrane) is placed on top of the gel. Pressure is
applied evenly to the gel
3. The DNA is then denatured and an electric current is added to either side of the
membranes (+ve on nylon side, -ve on negative side) this allows single stranded
DNA molecules to move
4. Radioactive probes are then added and anneal (bond) to specific locations on the
gel. These radioactive probes burn an image into an X-ray film
3. PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction
PCR is a technique used to clone (amplify) DNA
before the technique was develop, if scientists wanted to make multiple copies of a
gene fragment, the gene would havve to be inserted into a plasmid and the
58

bacterial cell would make more copies when it replicates its plasmids. Then
scientists would have to remove the plasmids and cut out the bacterial genes
With PCR, many copies of DNA can be made quickly
This is particularly useful wen only a small sample of original DNA is available
(Ex. IF only a small sample of DNA is obtained from a crime scene, PCR may be used
to allow for multiple forensic tests)
before running a DNA through the Gel Electrophoresis for analysis, the sampel will
undergo PCR to make sure there is enough DNA for adequate testing
The process of PCR is clsely related to DNA replication that occurs within the
nucleus of the cell
DNA Replication
The 2 DNA strands are separated using
enzymes helicase and gyrase

An RNA Primer must be added first

before DNA nucleotides are added to
build a complementary strand to the
template strand

Once the RNA primes have been laid

down, DNA polymerase II will build a
complementary strand by adding DNA
nucleotides

PCR
The 2 strands of DNA are separated
using heat
At temps of 94oC 96oC the hydrogen
bonds between the complimentary
strand will break, separating the
strands
A DNA primer is used instead because
they are easy to produce in labs
The temp is lowered to 50oC 65oC to
allow for the DNA primers to attach
One of the primers is known as a
forward primer and the other is a
reverse primer because they start
synthesis of DNA in opposite directions
Temp raised to 76oC
Taq polymerase a type of
complementary strand using DNA
nucleotides that have been added to
the solution
(Taq polymerase does not denature
because it is extracted from a bacteria
that lives in hot springs (used to hold
temperatures))

When the comelmentary strands have been built, the cycle can repeat itself over
and over again.
4. Cloning
The process of producing one individual that is genetically identical to another,
using a single cell or tissue.
Clone: genetically identical organisms or cells derived from a single parent cell
Remember: Cloning is a type of asexual reproduction
59

Cloning occurs naturally in nature by plants and animals

Spore Formation
Occurs in bacteria and mold
the parent organisms produces smaller cells called spores that can detach from
the parent, and land in another area and grow
Vegetative Propagation
Occurs in many plants like strawberries
The plant produces a long stem-like feature called a runner that can detach from
the plant and grow roots easily
Budding
Occurs in yeast and some multicellular organisms such as hydra
The organism grows and extensions a bud that eventually breaks off the parent
Aphids
in spring female aphids can produce more female aphids that are essentially clones
of themselves
In the fall, changes in their hormone levels cause them to produce males
Then male and female aphids can reproduce sexually
Identical Twins
They are an example of natural clones
Unnatural Cloning
Plant Cloning
Plants with favourable traits could be cloned (using vegetative propagation) to get:
better tasting crops, better looking crops, larger crop yields
Animal Cloning
Wilmuts technique
1. He first obtained an udder cell from a Finn Dorset sheep and removed the nucleus
2. He then obtained an egg cell from a poll Dorset sheep and removed the nucleus
3. He placed the nucleus from the 1st cell (the Finn Dorset) into the egg cell of the
Poll Dorset
4. To get this new cell to undergo cell division, he shocked it with electricity. He had
to do this process 277 times before it worked
5. Once the cell began dividing it formed an embryo
6. He implanted the embryo into the uterus of a Scottish Blackface Sheep
7. The clone grew in the Uterus until it was born
Cows that produce the most milk, hens that lay the most eggs, Cattle that produce
the best tasting beef can be cloned to make more organisms with the same
desirable traits and create more financial profits
Therapeutic Cloning
Involves stem cell research
Aims at cell therapy where diseased cells are replaced with helathy ones
Human embryos are produced (in vitro) and allowed to grow for a few days into a
small ball of cells
These cells are not yet specialized (theyre stem cells / pluripotent)
Stem Cells can also be obtained from umbilical cords or aborted fetuses
60

Purpose:
Treat people suffering from Parkinsons
Treat spinal cord injuries
Bone Marrow transplants for leukemia patients
Pro:
Can cure and treat diseases with cell therapy
Cons:
Fear it can lead to reproductive cloning
Creation and destruction of life
Embryonic stem cells are capable fo any divisions and may become tumours
Problems with cloning
lack of diversity
the population of clones vulnerable to changes and diseases
5. GMOs
Organisms whose genetic material has been altered to include specific genes, often
from another species
If the GMO displays favorable characteristics it can be cloned to mass produce these
favorable organisms
Purpose:
Increase crops
Increase shelf life
make disease and bug resistant crops
more nutritious crops
Insulin
Commercial Insulin (for diabetics) is produced by bacteria that has the gene for
insulin inserted into its DNA
Flavr Savr
1994, the first GMO food sold commercially
A tomato altered to stay fresh longer
Contained a gene that blocked the production of an enzyme responsible for rotting
Golden Rice
Modified by adding genes from daffodils and bacterium
Modified Rice now contains Vitamin A
Many people in developing nations rely on rice as a major staple in their diet
Glden Rice provides more nutrition
Bt Corn
Inserted gene from the soil bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis
Causes the corn crops to produce a toxin making it resistant to insects
benefits:
Reduces damage caused by European Crop Borer (ECB)
61

Less
Less
Less
Less

expensive than insecticide

checking for the effects of ECB
insecticide better for the environment
Fungal infections

Harmful effects of Bt Corn

May kill other insects influence food webs and ecosystems
Insects ay develop resistance to Bt toxin
Which would maek Bt spray (insect repellent) ineffective for human use
Pollen may get into another crop field, infiltrating organic crops and putting other
ecosystems in jeopardy

Plants
Anatomy Growth and Function
Plants: Kingdom Plantae
Cells are eukaryotic
Cell Walls Contain cellulose
Synthesize carbohydrates through process photosynthesis
Amazing Diversity
After millions of years of evolution and development, an enormous number of
different plant variations have been created
Plants have unusual lives as they are immobile, they cannot move
independently and are therefore limited to the environment around them
To cope with their immobility, plants have many adaptations to survive a
variety of environmental conditions
Phylogeny of Plants
Green Algae
62

Early Nonvascular Plants

Vascular Plants
Seedless

Nonvascular plants

Early seed plants

Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Basic Needs of Plants

Energy
Nutrients
Water
CO2
Protection from herbivores and disease
Reproduction
A Brief Intro to Plants
All living organisms require chemical energy (ATP) to run the various
chemical reactions that sustain life
In a process of cellular respiration, organisms covert simple sugars (i.e
glucose) into that chemical energy
Animals such as ourselves obtain sugars from the food we eat.

Photosynthesis
The chemical process in which plants make sugar using light energy, water
and carbon dioxide, making oxygen as a side product
the sugar made during photosynthesis can then be used for cellular
respiration
Equation for Photosynthesis:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Light Energy C6H12O6 + 6O2

From the atmosphere

From the surrounding

63

environment
From the Sun
A variety of simple sugars may be formed, though glucose (C6H12O6) is one
of the most common.
If any of the reactants are lacking or are limiting, photosynthesis may not
occur and the plant may die.

Structure of Vascular Plants

2 main non-reproductive organ systems:

Shoot system: above ground
Root system: underground
3 main non-reproductive organs:
Leaves
Stems
Roots
These are made of:
Dermal tissue
Vascular tissue
Ground tissue
Dermal Tissues
Two main types: the epidermis and the periderm (bark)
Outermost cell layers
Often have thicker cell walls
Secretes a waxy layer called a cuticle
Protect against injury, herbivores, disease, and water loss

Vascular Tissues
Two main types:
Xylem thick-walled cells, dead at maturity
Phloem thin-walled cells, living at maturity
Used to transport water and nutrients
Support the plant body

Ground Tissues
Three tissue types:
Parenchyma thin-walled cells, living at maturity. Perform cellular
processes to support growth and development and store carbohydrates
(especially starch)
64

Collenchyma thick-walled cells, living at maturity. Perform cellular

processes to support growth and supports and protects the plant body.
Sclerenchyma cells with lignin (a highly branched polymer) in their
cell walls, dead at maturity. Support and protect plant body.

Leaves
Characteristics of leaves have evolved gradually in order to maximize
the efficiency with which they :
Photosynthesize
Reduce water loss
Avoid being eaten
Survive extreme conditions
ie. Diversity of species has resulted in survival of some species in a
location but not for others.
Leaf Adaptations
Plants with broad leaves survive in shaded areas, but will die in open
sunny fields
Plants whose leaves appear in early spring, before leaves of
surrounding trees emerge to create shade will survive in a deciduous forest,
but plants with leaves appearing late will die
Conifers, with their thin , long needles have a thick, waxy cuticle to
avoid water loss and survive short growing season by keeping their leaves
through winter
Leaves with thick layers of water storage tissue have an extra thick
waxy cuticle to prevent water loss and survive low precipitation/salty soil
(cacti)
Leaves that are tough, hairy, prickly and bitter are avoided by
herbivores
Plants with toxic chemicals in tissues control herbivore populations
(nicotine in tobacco leaves is an insecticide)
Leaf Structure
Site of photosynthesis
Leaves are positioned along stem at points called nodes, the spaces
between nodes are called internode
Leaf is connected to plant by the petiole
Parallel venation is characteristic of monocots
Net venation is characteristic of dicots
a single, undivided blade is called a
simple leaf
A blade divided into two or more
leaflets is called a compound leaf
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Leaf Structure

3-D Cross-Section of a Leaf

Protects the leaf from excessive absorption
of light and evaporation of water
A transparent colourless
layer of cells that allows light to pass through to the
mesophyll cells
Where most of the photosynthesis takes place (abundant in chloroplasts).
A system of vessels that transport water, minerals, and carbohydrates within
the plant.
Photosynthetic epidermal cells that create microscopic openings called
stomata.
Regulates the exchange of gases in the atmosphere

Mesophyll

Two types:
Palisade mesophyll elongated and tightly packed cells. Contain many
chloroplasts
Spongy mesophyll loosely packed cells with large air spaces, which
allow for gas exchange between the mesophyll cells and the atmosphere
(through the stomata)

Stomata

Stoma (pl stomata) is an opening in the epidermis of a leaf, through

which gases pass in and out
Each stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells that control the
control the size of a stoma by changing their shape in response to water
movement by osmosis in the cells.

Stomata

When water moves into guard cells, the cells become turgid (swollen)
and the stoma opens.

When water move out of the guard cells, the guard cells become
flaccid (limp), and the stoma closes.
O2
CO2

Cell Turgor Pressure

the pressure inside the cell that is exerted on the cell wall by the
plasma membrane
66

created by water entering the cell via osmosis

Stomata Opening and Closing

In general, stomata are open in the daytime and closed at night.

Opening:
When the Sun comes out in the morning, it activates receptors in the
guard cell membranes, stimulating proton pumps that pump H+ out of the
guard cells.
K+ move into the cells, followed by water (via osmosis)
Closing
Hormone absicis acid (ABA) causes the stomata to close.
Also, changes the particles in the guard cells of the stomata will cause
the guard cells to lose water and become flaccid, closing the stomata.
H+ are pumped out of guard cells
K+ diffuses into guard cells
H2O diffuse into cells by osmosis
Guard cells swell and open
CO2 enters stoma

Stems

Provide support
Serves as a transport link to and from leaves, roots and reproductive
parts such as flowers, fruits and seeds
Stores water and carbohydrates
Raise and support the leaves and reproductive organs
Maximizes exposure of leaves to sunlight
Puts reproductive organs (flowers) in an ideal position for pollinators

Stems

Adaptations:
Stem tubers are modified for food storage which can form from roots
(e.g. potatoes)
Tendrils will attach the plant to something. When the tendril touches
something, the other side will grow faster to make it wrap around an object
(e.g. sweet pea)

Stem Types
Herbacious : thin, soft, green, short-lived, photosynthetic, and contain
little or no wood. Less than 1m tall. Stems of annual plants surviving only
one year.
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Woody: describes stems of perrennial plants. As more vascular tissues

is created, they increase in diameter. Dead xylem cells create the hard
tissue called wood. Bark consists of all tissue from the vascular cambium
outward; Heartwood is darker, dead, older, xylem plugged with oils, and;
Sapwood is lighter, live, younger xylem transporting water and other
dissolved materials.

Roots

Absorb water and minerals from the soil

Physically support and anchor plants
Store carbohydrates
Produce compounds (e.g. hormones)
A primary root develops from seed and branching from it is the
secondary root (lateral root)
Storage roots (e.g. carrots) have been modified to store water or food

Roots
Roots

Root hairs increase the surface area over which water and mineral ions
may be absorbed.
The Root cap is important in protecting the apical meristem during
primary growth of the root through the soil.

Taproot Vs Fibrous Root

Young root increases in diameter, grows downward, and develops small

lateral roots.
ie. Carrots, beets, dandelions, oak trees
Primary root is short-lived and is replaced by Adventitious roots.
Adventitious roots and their lateral roots make up the fibrous root system.
ie. Grasses, and other monocots

Water movement in Roots

must pass through the epidermis and cortex to get to the vascular
tissue.
Water moves into the root hairs via osmosis.
There is a higher solute concentration and a lower water concentration
than the surrounding soil.

Ion movement in Roots

IONS (i.e. nitrates, ammonium, potassium, phosphates, calcium) enter

through:
Diffusion
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Fungal Hyphae
Active Transport
DIFFUSION when the concentration of minerals is higher in the soil
than in the root. They dissolve in water and then move into the root.
May also come in with water during MASS FLOW in which the plant
takes in large volumes of water.

Fungal Hyphae

some plant species have developed a symbiotic relationship

(mutualism) with fungus to help absorb minerals.
They can grow into the plant roots and transport minerals to the roots
that the plant cannot absorb without it. Also creates a larger surface area
for absorption

Active Transport

Used when the concentration of minerals is higher inside the root than
outside.
Requires energy and protein pumps, specific to certain mineral ions.
Mineral ions can only be absorbed by active transport if they make
contact with the appropriate protein pump
Proton pump uses energy from ATP to pump H+ out of the cell.
Higher [ H+] outside the cell than inside creating a negative charge
inside the cell and an ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT.
Now the positive ions can move into the cell via diffusion.

Xylem

Long continuous hollow tubes.

Made of dead cells, responsible for transporting water.
Water flows in one direction (up!)
Reinforced by lignin: a highly branched polymer that strengthens the
walls so they can withstand low pressure without collapsing
(Pressure in the xylem is usually much lower than in the atmosphere
(see page 411 on DRAWING XYLEM VESSELS)
Epidermis
Cortex
Phloem Vascular
Xylem Bundle
Cambium
Pith

Transpiration

The loss of water vapour from leaves through the stomata.

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Often leaves are exposed to direct sunlight.

They have a large surface area to capture light for photosynthesis but
also creates a large surface for water to be evaporated out.
A medium sized tree can evaporate +1000L on a hot, dry day.
When water evaporates from the surface of the wall in a leaf, adhesion
causes water to be drawn through the cell wall from the nearest available
supply to replace the lost water.
The nearest available water supply is the xylem vessels in the veins of
the leaf.

Transpiration

The water that is lost by transpiration is replaced by the intake of

water in the roots.
Transpiration pull is a continuous stream of water against gravity from
the roots to the upper parts of the plant, aided by cohesion and adhesion.
Cohesion: H bonds between water molecules
Adhesion: H bonds between water molecules and the sides of the
vessels it counter acts gravity.

Factors that affect Transpiration

Light warm leaf and open stomata

Humidity- decrease in humidity increases transpiration
Wind increases rate because humid air near the stomata is carried
away
Temperature increases because more evaporation
Soil water if intake of water by the roots does not keep up with
transpiration, cells lose turgor pressure and stomata close.
Carbon Dioxide high levels around the plant cause guard cells to lose
turgor and the stomata close.

Using a Potometer

A device used to measure transpiration rates.

Consists of:
A leafy shoot in a tube
A reservoir
Graduated capillary tube with a bubble marking zero
potometer
As the plant takes up water, the bubble will move along the capillary
tube
Time to move along the tube can be measure

Adaptations for Water Conservation

70

XEROPHYTES
Plants that can tolerate dry conditions (such as deserts)
Adapted to increase rate of water uptake and reduce water loss
Less competition in these environments

Xerophyte Adaptations

Reduced leaves smaller surface area reduces transpiration

Rolled Leaves reduces stoma exposure to air and sun thus reduces
transpiration
Spines decrease in surface area

Xerophyte Adaptations

Thickened waxy cuticle less water can escape

Low growth form closer to the ground and thus less wind exposure
Fleshy stems with water stored from rainy seasons

Xerophyte Adaptations

Reduced number of stomata

Sunken stomata in pits surrounded by hairs the water vapour stays in
the pit reducing the concentration gradient.
https://encrypted-tbn3.gstatic.com/images?
q=tbn:ANd9GcQHBQ9w6fnyDqvZoA7t7p-6mjdMf9nmEJJ7kIbX-lva1mQq-LQs

Xerophyte Adaptations

Hair like cell on leaf surface trap a layer of water vapour maintaining
a higher humidity
Shedding leaves in driest months
CAM photosynthesis stomata are open at night when it is cooler so
less water loss.
C4 photosynthesis - involves a specialized leaf structure to maximize
photosynthesis

Adaptations for Water Conservation

Halophytes
Plants that live in saline soils
(high salt concentrations)
They require adaptations for water conservation (otherwise water loss
will occur because of osmosis)

Halophyte Adaptations

Reduced leaves or spines

Shedding of leaves when water is scarce (and then stem takes over
photosynthesis)
Water storage structures in leaves (away from saline root environment)
71

Thick cuticle; multiple epidermal layers

Sunken stomata
Long roots to search for water
Structures to remove salt build up.
Plant Biology

9.2 Transport in the Phloem of Plants

Phloem

vessel transporting food or organic material (i.e. sucrose, amino

acids) via translocation
Materials can move in either direction in the phloem
Phloem tissue is found throughout the plant (stem, roots, leaves)
It is composed of sieve tubes which are specialized cells separated by
perforated walls called sieve plates
Sieve tube cells are closely associate with companion cells

Phloem
Phloem Sieve Tubes

The sieve tubes are composed of columns of specialized cells

These cells are living (though no nucleus) because they need to be
able to undergo active transport to transport materials in and out of the
phloem
The sieve plates are remnants of cells walls that separated the
adjacent sieve tube cells

Phloem Sieve Tube Cells

Sieve tube cells are closely associated with companion cells. (They are
daughter cells from a mitotic division of one same parent cell)
The companion cell performs many of the genetic and metabolic
functions to support the sieve tube cell.
They are abundant in mitochondria for this purpose.
Plasmodesmata connect companion cells with sieve tube cells.

Source and Sink

Sugars are made in photosynthetic organs (the leaves) and stored in

the root.
Source where food is made or stored
Made: Green leaves, stems,
Stored: seeds, roots
Sink where food in used
Developing fruits, developing seeds, growing leaves, developing roots
72

Organic material moves through the phloem from source to sink

Phloem Loading

Sugar is made in the leaves during photosynthesis. However, it is

required throughout the plant for cellular respiration. In many plants, excess
sugar is stored in the roots as longer carbohydrates.
How is sugar made in the leaves moved to the roots?
Translocation via the phloem using the Pressure Flow Hypothesis
Source= leaves Sink = roots
Remember: 1)materials move from source to sink
2)molecules move from high pressure to low pressure

Pressure Flow Hypothesis

At the source, sugar is brought into the phloem by active transport

Water follows, moving into the phloem (from the adjacent xylem) via
osmosis (remember H2O follows solutes) to produce sap
High pressure created in this area of the phloem
The sap will be pushed to a lower pressure area, a sink
At the sink, the presence of sap now creates a high pressure situation.
Phloem cells move the sugar out.
Water will also move out of phloem following osmotic gradient (H2O
will move back into xylem)
Low pressure recreated in the sink, resulting in
more sap flowing to the area.

Phloem
Pressure Flow Hypothesis

Later in the life of the plant, the plant may require this stored sugar
from the roots, for example to grow a fruit.
In this new scenario, now the roots will be the source and the
developing fruit would be the sink and the sap would move against gravity
up the stem.

Identifying Xylem and Phloem

Clues:
Xylem larger than phloem
Within one vascular bundle, phloem cells are closer to the outside of
the plant in stems and roots.
See page 420-421

Root of a Buttercup (Ranunculus)

Cross section of a root.

Vascular bundles are the coloured clusters
73

Larger openings xylem, smaller phloem

Chapter 9: Plant Biology

9.3 Growth in Plants

Plant Growth

Plants show growth throughout their lives (indeterminate growth), however, they do die
Death occurs based on the plants life cycle
Annuals they complete their life cycle in one year
Biennials take 2 years to complete their life cycle
Perennials live many years- usually die because of infections or other environmental
factors

Meristems

Growth in plants in confined to regions known as meristems

Meristem the undifferentiated tissues in plants (the stem cells of plants)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h9kCPO7oMf8

Apical Meristem
Found at the tips of roots and stems, and the tips of buds and shoots
Produces primary growth (i.e. longer stem or roots)
Apical Meristems
Root Meristem -responsible for the growth of the root
Shoot meristem is responsible for
Growth (lengthening) of stem
Cells that will produce leaves and flowers
Apical Meristems
Which each division, one cell remains in the meristem
The other increases in size and differentiates as it is pushed away from the
meristem region
Each apical meristem can give rise to additional meristems:
Protoderm epidermis
Procambium vascular tissue
Ground meristem pith

Lateral Meristems

Found in the cambium

74

Allow for secondary growth (i.e. for the plant to get thicker)
Auxin

Auxins are hormones that have a broad range of function including initiating
root growth, development of fruit, and regulating leaf development

IAA (indole-3-acetic acid) is the most abundant auxin

IAA is produced in the apical meristem and is transported down the stem to
stimulate growth

At high concentrations it can inhibit growth

Auxins

Axillary buds are shoots that form at a node (the junction of the stem and the
base of a leaf).

Auxin produced at the shoot apex inhibits growth at the nodes. This is
known as apical dominance.

Auxins
As the plant grows the shoot apex is further away from the node
This means less auxin means the node can now grow
Now the axillary bud can produce a stem or a fruit
Cytokinins are hormones produced in the roots that also promote axillary
bud development
Movement in Plants
Plants can adapt to their environment by changing orientation
Tropism
Movement is in a direction either toward or away from a stimulus
Two main types:
Phototropism
Gravitotropism/geotropism

Tropism and Auxin

Phototropism

When light hits one side of the stem, auxin (a plant hormone) moves away
from the light.

The auxin stimulates stem growth on the dark side so it grows faster,
causing the plant to bend towards the light
Tropism and Auxin
75

2) Gravitotropism
Auxins will gather on the lower side of the plant.
The auxin stunts root growth on the side closer to the ground, the other side
has normal growth, so the root bends toward gravity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5JXm1USHlQY

Nastic Movements
Nastic Movements
Movements that occur in response to environmental stimuli
the direction of the response is not dependent on the direction of the
stimulus.
For example: Venus fly trap
Micropropagation of Plants
This is an in vitro procedure to clone plants
Tissues from the shoot apex of a plant with desirable features is sterilized
and cut into pieces known as explants
The explants are grown in a nutrient agar that also contains growth
hormones.
Once the roots and shoots are developed, the clones plant can be transferred
to soil
Micropropagation
Useful for propagating virus-free plants, since meristematic tissues are likely
virus-free.
Can be used to clone endangered plants
Some plants, like orchids, are difficult to germinate the traditional way.
Micropropagation is high successful.
The plantlets can be stored in liquid nitrogen - cryopreservation

Chapter 9:
Plant Biology

9.4 Reproduction in Angiospermophytes

Plant Reproduction

Recall that seed plants (spermatophytes) are a subdivision of vascular plants

(tracheophytes)

A seed provides protection for the embryo

76

Some can reproduce asexually, but main mode of reproduction is by

alternation of generations (haploid stage followed by diploid stage)

Whether or not the seeds are enclosed determines the type of spermatophyte:

i) GYMNOSPERM: produce unprotected (naked) seeds in cone-like

structures and often called conifers. ie. Pines, spruces, junipers, cedars

ii) ANGIOSPERM: produce seeds that are enclosed and protected inside a
fruit, which is formed by various flower parts. ie. Trilliums, raspberries, apple
trees, grasses, corn, elms,
Gymnosperm or Angiosperm
Monocots Vs Dicots

Angiosperms are grouped into 2 classes: the monocotyledons and the

dicotyledons

A cotyledon is a seed leaf that stores carbohydrates for the developing

embryo
Monocots Vs Dicots
Monocot or Dicot?
Reproductive Organs
Dicotyledonous Flower Parts

Flowers
Flowers occur in various colours, shapes and types reflective of their
pollinator
Complete flowers contain all four basic flower parts (sepals, petals,
stamen, and carpel)
Incomplete flowers lack at least one of these parts
Staminate flowers have only stamens
Carpellate flowers have only carpels
From R-L: The same flower with human vision, only UV vision (bright = UV), simulated bee
vision (UV+G+B), simulated bird vision (tetrachromatcic: UV+R+G+B). (Photos: (c) Dr Klaus
Schmitt, Weinheim, Germany, uvir.eu )

Flowering

Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot

Vegetative Phase: when a seed germinates a young plant is formed that grows roots, stems, and leaves
Reproductive Phase: when meristems start to produce flowers instead of leaves. Normally occurs because there is more sugar being produced than used
by the plant

77

Factors Affecting Flowering

Temperature limited effect and varies based on plant

Day length greatest effect

Short day plants: flower when darkness lengths increase

Long day plants: flower when there is decreased length of darkness

Light Photoperiodism: the plants response to light involving the relative lengths of day and night.

Long day plants: the active form of the pigment phytochrome leads to the transcription of the flowering time gene (FT)
Length of darkness is the trigger NOT length of daylight!

Phytochrome

Phytochrome is a photoreceptor and a pigment

It absorbs light
There are 2 forms of phytochrome
Pr absorbs red light
Pfr absorbs far-red light/darkness

Far-Red Light

Wavelengths between 700-800nm

At the far end of the visible light spectrum
(Between red light and infrared light)

Phytochrome

During the day, when there is light, red light (wavelength of 660nm) is present
Pr absorbs red light and is rapidly converted into Pfr
At the end of the day, after many hours of light, plants will have most of their phytochrome in the form of Pfr
During the night, when there isnt light (therefore no red light), Pfr is slowly converted back into Pr
By morning, most of the phytochrome will be Pr again
If there is even a flash of light interrupting the darkness during the night, it will disrupt the process of Pfr turning into Pr

Phytochrome Long Day Plants

Long-day plants, require Pfr to flower

Long day = short night!
At the end of a short night, there will still be lots of Pfr remaining.
The remaining Pfr at the end of a short night stimulates the plant to flower.

Phytochrome Short Day Plants

In short-day plants, the Pfr acts as an inhibitor for flowering.

So after a short night, the remaining Pfr will prevent the plant from flowering.
If it was a long night, all the phytochrome will be in the form of Pr (there will be no Pfr) so
flowering CAN occur.

Pollination

the process in which pollen (which contains the male sex cells sperm) is placed on the female
stigma.
Can occur via a variety of vectors
Wind
water
Insects
Birds
Bats

Pollination
Angiosperms and their pollinators have coevolved (supported by fossil evidence)
The flowers colours, patterns, odours, shapes and even the time of day it blooms are designed to attract a
specific pollinator

78

Often, the flower provides the gift of food to the pollinator in exchange for the pollinator unintentionally
transporting pollen to the stigma. A mutualistic relationship!

Pollinator Examples

Red flowers pollinated by birds

Yellow and orange flowers bees
Heavily scented flowers nocturnal animals
Inconspicuous, odourless flowers wind

As the humming bird eats nectar at the base of the flower, it picks up pollen which
it will transfer to the stigma of the next flower it visits
These orchids look similar to a particular wasp species. A wasp will come to the orchid and a
attempt to mate with it. In the process it will pick up pollen and transfer it to the next flower it
attempts to mate with.

Types of Pollination

Self Pollination when pollen from the anther of a plant falls on its own stigma
A form of inbreeding thus less genetic variation
Cross Pollination pollen lands on the stigma of a different plant.
Increases variation and offspring with different fitness

Fertilization

When the male and female sex cells unite to form a diploid zygote.
The female sex cells are in the ovules. The sperm from the pollen that has attached itself
to the stigma must make its way to the ovules in the ovary.
Pollen attaches to stigma and begins to grow a pollen tube through the style
Within the growing pollen tube is the nucleus that will produce the sperm.
The pollen tube completes growing by entering an opening at the bottom of the ovary
The sperm moves from the tube to combine with the egg of ovule to form a zygote.

The Seed and Seed Dispersal

Once the zygote is formed, it develops with the surrounding tissue into the seed
As the seed is developing, the ovary around the ovule mature into a fruit
Seed dispersal can be aided by water, wind, animals

Seed

Is the means by which an embryo can be dispersed into to distant locations.

It is a protective structure for the embryo

Parts of the Seed

Pre-Germination
79

Once seeds are formed, a maturation process follows.

The seed dehydrates until the water content of the seeds is about 10 -15% of its weight.
At this point, the seed goes into a dormant period where there is low metabolism and no
growth or development.
Duration is variable for different types of seed
It is an adaptation to environmental conditions

Germination Conditions
If conditions become favourable, the seed will germinated.
Germination is the development of the seed into a functional plant.
There are several conditions that must be fulfilled for a seed to germinate.
The emerging seedling is fragile and will be exposed to hard weather, parasites,
predators, and other hazards.
Many seeds will not produce a functional plant because of these threats
To compensate, plants produce a large number of seeds

Water
Required to rehydrate the dried seed tissues
Makes the seed swell
As a result the seed coat will crack and hydrolytic enzymes are activated- they will start
to catabolize large molecules (storage polysaccharides such as starch is converted into maltose)
for cellular respiration.

OXYGEN
Required for the break down of those sugars in cellular respiration

TEMPERATURE
Appropriate temperature is required, that is varied among plants depending on their
natural environment.
Ex. Period of low temperature followed by high temps ensures that the seed does not
geminate until the winter has passed.
Temperature is important for enzyme activity

Metabolic Processes during Germination of a Starchy

Seed

Seed absorbs water (which leads to many metabolic changes)

Gibberellin (a plant growth hormone) is released after the uptake of water
Gibberellin triggers the release of the enzyme amylase
Amylase causes the hydrolysis of the starch into maltose

Metabolic Processes during Germination of a Starchy

Seed
80

Maltose is hydrolyzed into glucose which can be used for cellular respiration or
converted into cellulose to build cell walls for new cells
Stored proteins and lipids will also be hydrolyzed to make proteins/enzymes and
phospholipids and energy metabolism.
Germination uses the food stored in cotyledons to grown until it reaches light when it
starts to
Photosynthesize
Diagram of a Plant

81