CHAPTER 5:

PAVEMENT FAILURES AND

MAINTENANCE
Possible causes of traffic-associated distress.
Possible causes of non-traffic-associated distress.
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1. PAVEMENT FAILURE
• Pavement Failure/ Distress/ Defect is a condition of the
pavement structure that reduces serviceability or leads to a
reduction in serviceability.
• Defects of a road can be classified into two:
a, Structural Defect
b, Surface/Functional Defect
1. Structural Defect - is the type of defect that affects the
structural part and makes the pavement incapable of
sustaining the load imposed up on its surface.
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• Structural defect of a pavement includes the following:
1. Alligator Cracks
2. Block Cracks
3. Corrugation
4. Depression
5. Rutting
1. Alligator Cracking
Alligator/ Fatigue Cracking in a bituminous surface shows
a series of interconnected cracks which occurs when the
pavement has been stressed to the limit of its fatigue life by
repetitive axle load applications.
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• Cracking begins at the bottom of the stabilized
base, where tensile stress and strain are the highest
under a wheel load.
• The cracks spread to surface initially as a series of
parallel longitudinal cracks.
• After repeated traffic loading the cracks join up,
forming many sided sharp angled pieces which
develop into a pattern resembling chicken wire or
the skin of an alligator.
• This pieces are generally less than 0.6m long on the
longest side.
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Causes of Alligator Cracks
• Alligator Cracks are caused by fatigue failure under
repeated traffic loads (pavement stressed to the limit of its
fatigue life by repetitive axle load applications).
• It is also caused by excessive deflection of the surface over
unstable sub grade/ lower courses of the structure.
• Provision of inadequate pavement drainage, which
contributes to this distress by allowing the pavement layers
to become saturated and lose strength.
• Provision of inadequate pavement thickness due to poor
quality control during construction.
Figure 5‑1: fatigue cracking
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Figure 5‑2: fatigue cracking

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Figure 5‑3: Fatigue cracking from edge failure

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2. Block Cracking
• Characterized by longitudinal and transverse cracks in
approximately square shapes, and size varying from 0.30
x 0.30m to 3.0 x 3.0m.
• Block cracking is more often seen in large paved areas,
such as parking lots or airfield pavements, than on roads
and streets.
• It can be very serious, especially if the cracks begin to
exhibit raveling and other advanced stages of
deterioration.
• Because the cracks can be closely spaced, the underlying
layers can be exposed to significant quantities of
infiltrating surface water.
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• The cracks should be sealed to prevent or minimize intrusion
of water.

Figure 5‑4: Block cracking

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Causes of Block Cracks
• This defect is caused mainly by shrinkage stress (due to the
temperature rise & drop in the surface) in the HMA layer that
exceeds the tensile strength of the asphalt mixture.
• Block cracking can also be caused by oxidative hardening of
the asphalt if:
• mixed too long in the pug mill of HMA batch facility,
• mixed too hot, or
• stored too long in silos. All these mechanisms make the
asphalt cement especially susceptible to tensile strains.
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3. Corrugation
• Consists of a series of closely spaced ridges and
valleys occurring at fairly regular intervals, usually
less than 3m apart along the pavement.
• Corrugation is a form of plastic surface movement
characterized by ripples across the bituminous
pavement surface.
Causes of Corrugation
• This type of failure is usually caused by traffic
action particularly braking and accelerating on a
soft surface.
Figure 5‑5: Corrugation
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• The cause of corrugations is usually lack of stability
in the bituminous mix.
• This lack of stability can be caused by:
• the mix being rich,
• the aggregate having excessive amounts
of fines,
• rounded or smooth textured particles,
• poor bond between material layers, or
• the use of soft binder
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4. Rutting:
• A rut is a surface depression which occur in the pavements
wheel path.
• Pavement uplift may occur along the sides of a rut.
Causes of Rutting
• Rutting stems from a permanent deformation in any of the
pavement layers or the sub-grade.
• It results from traffic loading concentrated on a narrow
width of the carriageway.
• Overstress in the HMA layer, underlying layers or sub
grade.
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• Significant rutting can lead to major structural failure of
the pavement.

Figure 5‑6: Rutting from mix instability

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2. Surfacing Defects: is a type of defect that affect

the pavement surface and which may or may not
be progressively changed into structural defect.
• The pavement do not carry out its intended function
without causing discomfort to the users.
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a) Polished Aggregate:
•Polished aggregates are surface aggregate particles that
have smooth and rounded surfaces, either in their
original condition or after repeated abrasive wear by
traffic.
•When the aggregate in the surface becomes smooth,
and its adhesion with vehicle tires is considerably
reduced, particularly when the road surface is wet.
•This defect is often highlighted by a significant
increase in the number of wet skid accidents.
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• Polished aggregate is a term applied to asphalt
pavement in which the surface aggregate has
been worn smooth.
• Polished aggregate causes a reduction in skid
resistance, especially when wet.
Causes of Polished Aggregate
• Low quality aggregate and
• Repeated traffic applications.
  
 

PAVEMENT FAILURES AND

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Figure 5‑7: Five years of wear

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b) Bleeding
•Bleeding/ Sweating/ Fatting-up is the formation of a
film of bitumen on the pavement surface, creating a
shiny glass like reflecting surface which becomes sticky
in hot weather.
•It occurs when binder fills the voids of the mix during
hot weather and under traffic and exudes on to the
pavement surface.
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• Like polished aggregate wet weather skidding is

an ever-present hazard.
Causes of Bleeding
• excessive bitumen
• low air voids content in a bitumen mix
• by over-application of surface dressing binder.
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Figure 55‑8: BST bleeding in wheel paths

Figure 5‑9: HMA bleeding from

over-
asphalting
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c) Raveling
•Raveling/ weathering/ fretting is a process in which the
more volatile parts of the asphalt are lost which results in the
hardening or aging of the asphalt binder in a pavement.
•It is the progressive disintegration of a HMA layer from the
surface as a result of the dislodgement of aggregate.
•This dislodgement of aggregate is caused by the loss of
bond between the aggregate particle and the asphalt coating.
•Weathering can be a problem in open-graded pavement
surfaces due to the increased surface area exposed to
weathering conditions.
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Causes of Raveling
• A coating of fine dust on the aggregate thick enough that
the asphalt film sticks to the dust rather than to the
aggregate.
• Low in-place density in the asphalt surface course.
• High density is required to provide sufficient
cohesion in the asphalt mixture.
• Hardening or aging of the asphalt binder in a pavement
due to loss of more volatile parts of the asphalt.
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Figure 5‑10: Raveling due to low density Figure 5‑11: Raveling from snow plot
operations
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d) Stripping
•Stripping is the loss of bond between the aggregates and
asphalt cement which typically begins at the bottom of the
HMA layer and progresses upward.
•When stripping starts at the surface and progresses
downward it results in raveling.
Causes of Stripping
•Inadequate provision of pavement drainage which results in
intrusion of water in HMA layer.
•Inadequate drying of aggregate.
•Weak and friable aggregate.
•Excess dust coating on aggregate.
•Inadequate compaction.
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Figure 5-12 : Core hole showing

Figure 5-13 : Stripping at bottom of hole
stripping at the bottom
Figure 5-14: Pothole failure
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Figure 5‑15: Fatigue failure from stripping

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e) De-lamination
•De-lamination is the separation of one layer of
pavement surface from another.
•The most usual fault is the separation of a thin veneer
wearing course from the underlying binder course.
•The failure process is progressive with increasing
embitterment of the bituminous binder.
•Consequent growing loss of elasticity and the crazing of
the veneer and separation of this from the undersurface
due to ingress of water and detritus.
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• rounded or smooth textured particles
• poor bond between material layers, or
• the use of a soft binder.
• Shoving occurs when the applied forces exceed the
shear strength of the asphalt mix or underlying layers.
• Shoving can also occur when thin asphalt layer are
placed over granular bases and sub bas.
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Figure 5-16: Shoving

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Introduction to maintenance
• The performance of a pavement is affected by the type,
time of application, and quality of maintenance it receives.
• The proper identification of pavement defects and the
determination of their causes is crucial to the selection of
proper maintenance treatments and repair strategies.
• Delays in maintenance increases the quantity of defects and
its severity so that it increases the cost of repair.
• In addition, a recognition that different pavements
deteriorate at different rates is important in selecting the
proper time for maintenance.
• Preventive timely maintenance slows down the rate of
pavement deterioration.
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• Factors which affect pavement deterioration rates are:
• Traffic loads
• Weather Condition
• Pavement Materials
• Pavement Thickness
• Construction Quality and
• Effectiveness of Previous Maintenance
• The primary reason for maintenance are:
• To correct deficiencies produced by distress
• To protect the investment and
• To provide a smooth and safe road for the user.
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• Generally, maintenance activities are divided into two

categories:
1. Preventive Maintenance
2. Corrective Maintenance
• Preventive Maintenance is that group activities
performed to protect the pavement and decrease the rate
of deterioration of the pavement quality.
• Corrective Maintenance is that group activities
performed to correct a specific pavement failure/ area of
distress.
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a) Preventive Maintenance
•There are two types of preventive pavement maintenance:
1. Surface Seal
2. Crack Sealing
Surface Seals: are those maintenance activities consisting of
applications of asphalt (asphalt and aggregates) which are
applied continuously to the whole surface of a traffic lane.
•These surface seals are most often applied to:
• Rejuvenate/ retard the oxidation of asphalt at the
surface.
• Restore skid resistance of the surface.
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• Seal fine cracks which have appeared at the surface.
• Prevent the intrusion of water into the pavement
structure through cracks which penetrate through the
HMA layer.
• Retard the raveling of aggregates from a weathered,
disintegrating surface.
• The most common types of seals applied to HMA surface
are:
1. Fog seals
2. Rejuvenators
3. Chip seals/ surface treatments
4. Slurry seals
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i. Fog Seals:
•Involves a light application of a slow setting emulsion to an
oxidized pavement surface
•The primary objective is to restore/ rejuvenate the asphalt
cement at the surface of the roadway.
•A fog seal consists of a single application of a slow setting
emulsion which has been diluted by an equal amount of
water.
•Higher quantity being used for coarse textured, dry surfaces.
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• The primary advantage of fog seal is its low cost and ability to
postpone the need for surface treatment.
• Care must be taken when applying fog seals to ensure that
excess asphalt is not applied which results in loss of skid
resistance.
• This treatment is suitable for low volume roads.
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Rejuvenators:
•Many products are available in the market which
rejuvenate the oxidized asphalt at the surface.
•They are made from tar products to make the
surface resistant to fuel spillage.
•Rejuvenators are usually applied with asphalt
distributors.
•Rejuvenators must be able to penetrate the HMA
surface to the desired depth within a reasonable
time.
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• If the HMA Surface is not sufficiently porous or the

viscosity of the rejuvenator is high or too much
rejuvenator is applied, the rejuvenator tends to form a
thin layer at the surface resulting in slippery and
hazardous condition.
• Therefore, rejuvenators are mostly used on low
volume, low speed roads or parking lots.
• The durability of rejuvenating applications has not
been well established.
• Rejuvenation may also postpones the need for surface
treatment.
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Chip seals/ Surface Treatments
•This type of surface treatment consists of single or
multiple applications of asphalt and aggregate over a
weathered surface.
•The thickness of surface treatment is limited to 1
inch.
•A thin HMA overlay is considered as a surface
treatment.
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• Chip seal is a single surface treatment which
involves spraying asphalt material followed
immediately by a thin aggregate cover which is
rolled as soon as possible.
• Sand seal – is a type of single surface treatments
which use sand as a cover aggregate.
• Sand seals are low cost treatments and are
appropriate for use on low volume rural roads or
residential streets.
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• Multiple Surface Treatment is a surface treatment

obtained by repeating the process of a single surface
treatment a second or even a third times.
• The maximum size of cover aggregate for each successive
applications is usually reduced by 50 percent.
• Cover aggregate should be clean; otherwise, it doesn’t
adhere to the asphalt material.
• Surface treatments add little load-carrying strength to the
pavement structure.
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• When properly designed and constructed, surface

treatments are economical, easy to place and
reasonably durable.
• Not only they provide a water proofing cover over
the existing pavement structure, they resist abrasion
by traffic.
• The asphalt binder can be asphalt cement, cutback
asphalt or emulsified asphalt.
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The Construction sequence for single surface treatment:
1. Set up traffic control. A detour is preferred.
2. Clean the surface to remove dirt and other loose
materials.
3. Apply the asphalt binder to the surface at the specified
rate and temperature using a calibrated asphalt
distributor.
4. Spread the aggregate at the specified rate evenly over the
surface immediately after the asphalt binder is applied.
5. Immediately roll the aggregate to push it through the
asphalt binder and to seat it firmly against the underlying
layer.
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Slurry Seals:
•A slurry seal is a homogeneous mixture of emulsified
asphalt, water, well graded fine aggregate and mineral
filler which has a creamy, fluid like appearance when
mixed in proper proportions.
•The layer thickness is approximately equal to the
maximum aggregate size.
•Based on the function served by the slurry seal, there
are generally three gradations used for the slurry seals.
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• Type I Slurry Seal: has the finest gradation with

most of the aggregates smaller than 2.36mm (sieve no
8).
• It is sometimes used as a preparation for HMA overlay/
Chip Seal.
• It has been used on low traffic areas such as parking lots
and paved shoulders.
• The primary functions of the seal:
• Sealing the asphalt surface from moisture,
• Prevention of additional oxidation of the asphalt
surface,
• Prevention of loss of surface materials.
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• Type II Slurry Seal: is slightly coarser than the

Type I Slurry Seal having a maximum aggregate size
of 6.4mm.
• It is the most extensively used of the mix types.
• It is used when moderate to severe raveling has
occurred due to oxidation of the asphalt and to restore
or improve skid resistance.
• When improved skid resistance is a criterion, the
aggregate should be angular and polish resistant, the
use of natural sands is prohibited.
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• Type III Slurry Seal: is typically reserved for
pavements which have developed severe surface
irregularities requiring a thicker sealer with larger
aggregate.
• It is recommended for use as the first course in a
multi course application and to restore skid
resistance.
• Because of its thickness, it fills slight depressions on
the paved surface to prevent water ponding on the
surface of the road.
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• Slow setting emulsified asphalt (SS) of all
types are used in slurry seal applications.
• Quick setting emulsified asphalt (QS) is used
when the road must be opened quickly to
traffic.
• Additives such as Limestone dust, Portland
cement and fly ash are sometimes added to the
slurry to produce particular characteristics in
the slurry.
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Crack Sealing: is a routine maintenance activity which
involves cleaning out the cracks and filling the clean cracks with
a sealant in order to prevent water and non-compressibles from
entering the pavement structure.
The most common type of cracks which needs sealing are:
• Longitudinal cracks
• Traverse cracks
• Edge cracks and
• Block cracks
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• Typical sealing procedures involve the following
steps:
1. Place proper traffic control devices in the work zone.
2. Route the cracks to remove debris and any
deteriorated crack sealing material.
3. Clean the cracks with compressed air or stiff bristle
broom.
4. Pour hot crack filling material into the crack with
6mm depth below the surface.
5. After allowing the sealant to cool, broom off the
excess sand, remove traffic control devices, and open
to traffic.
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2. Corrective Maintenance
• Corrective maintenance consists of:
a) Patches
b) Chip Seals
a) Patches: is one of the most common methods for
repair of localized areas of intensive cracking
(transverse or longitudinal cracking).
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• If the cracking has deteriorated to the point that disintegration
of the pavement materials around the cracks is occurring, the
defective material must be removed and replaced.
• Patching can either be:
• Partial depth repairs
• Full depth repairs
• Partial depth repairs involves removing the surface layer and
replacing it with HMA.
• Full depth repairs involves removal of the complete pavement
down to the sub grade or to an intermediate sub base layer.
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• Typical repairs in flexible pavements for cracked areas
involves full depth repairs.
• Partial depth repairs are reserved for cracks that results due to
poor bond to the underlying layer or for shoving and
corrugations.
• A patch consisting of HMA is considered to be a permanent
repair and should last for years.
• Emergency repairs of potholes frequently involve the use of
cold mix materials under severe environmental conditions.
• This is a temporary repair and serves as an expedient measure
in order to keep traffic movement until permanent repair is
made.
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• The proper procedure for making a permanent patch in a
HMA surface involves the following steps:
1. Set up traffic control consistent with the class of highway.
2. Mark of the area to be removed using paint, or chalk.
3. Cut through the pavement around the perimeter of the
polygon using a saw.
4. Remove the loose material down to a solid base.
5. Apply tack coats to the sides and bottom of the hole when
patching with HMA.
6. Place 4 inch (100mm) layer of HMA and compact each
layer.
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7. Using a straightedge, check around the perimeter of the
patched area to ensure that the patch is approximately level
with the surrounding pavement.
8. Seal the edges of the patch using a sand or chip seal which
involves a light application of liquid asphalt blotted with
sand or aggregate chips.
9. Sweep all loose materials from the road surface and remove
to a suitable site and remove traffic control devices and open
to traffic.
• The following patching procedure is followed for temporary
repairs:
1. Set off traffic control devices.
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2. Remove all large, loose materials from the hole as much as

is practical by brooming.
3. Fill the patch with cold mix patching material and compact
by hand tamping or preferably with truck wheels.
4. Sweep all loose materials from the roadway surface, remove
traffic control devices, and open to traffic.
 THANK YOU
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