Semiconductor

Physics
 Introduction

• Semiconductors are materials whose electronic properties

are intermediate between those of Metals and Insulators.

• They have conductivities in the range of 10 -4 to 10 +4S/m.

• The interesting feature about semiconductors is that they

are bipolar and current is transported by two charge
carriers of opposite sign.

• These intermediate properties are determined by

1.Crystal Structure bonding Characteristics.
2.Electronic Energy bands.
• Silicon and Germanium are elemental semiconductors and
they have four valence electrons which are distributed
among the outermost S and p orbital's.

• These outer most S and p orbital's of Semiconductors

involve in Sp3 hybridanisation.

• These Sp3 orbital's form four covalent bonds of equal

angular separation leading to a tetrahedral arrangement of
atoms in space results tetrahedron shape, resulting crystal
structure is known as Diamond cubic crystal structure
Semiconductors are mainly two types

1. Intrinsic (Pure) Semiconductors

2. Extrinsic (Impure) Semiconductors
 Intrinsic Semiconductor

• A Semiconductor which does not have any kind

of impurities, behaves as an Insulator at 0k and
behaves as a Conductor at higher temperature is
known as Intrinsic Semiconductor or Pure
Semiconductors.

• Germanium and Silicon (4th group elements) are

the best examples of intrinsic semiconductors and
they possess diamond cubic crystalline structure.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor

Valence Cell

Covalent bonds
Si

Si Si Si

Si
 Conduction band

KE of
Ec Electron
= E - Ec
Ec
E
Ef Fermi energy level
Electron
energy

Ev
KE of Hole
=
Valence band
Ev - E

Distance
 Carrier Concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductor

When a suitable form of Energy is supplied to a

Semiconductor then electrons take transition from
Valence band to Conduction band.

Hence a free electron in Conduction band and

simultaneously free hole in Valence band is formed.
This phenomenon is known as Electron - Hole pair
generation.

In Intrinsic Semiconductor the Number of Conduction

electrons will be equal to the Number of Vacant sites or
holes in the valence band.
 Calculation of Density of
Electrons
Let ‘dn’ be the Number of Electrons available between
energy interval ‘E and E+ dE’ in the Conduction band

dn  Z ( E ) dE F ( E )
top of the band

n  z ( E ) F ( E )dE................(1)
Ec

Where Z(E) dE is the Density of states in the energy

interval E and E + dE and F(E) is the Probability of
Electron occupancy.
We know that the density of states i.e., the number of energy
states per unit volume within the energy interval E and E + dE
is given by
3 1
4
Z ( E )dE  3 (2m) 2 E 2 dE
h

3 1
4
Z ( E )dE  3 (2me ) 2 E 2 dE
h

Since the E starts at the bottom of the Conduction band Ec

3 1
4
Z ( E )dE  3 (2me ) 2 ( E  Ec ) 2 dE
h
Probability of an Electron occupying an energy state E
is given by

1
F (E) 
E  Ef
1  exp( )
kT
For all possible temperatures E  E F  kT
1
F (E) 
E  Ef
exp( )
kT
E  EF EF  E
F ( E )  exp ( )  exp( )
kT kT
Substitute Z(E) and F(E) values in Equation (1)

top of the band

n  z ( E ) F ( E )dE
Ec
 3 1
4 E E
n   3 (2me ) 2 ( E  Ec ) 2 exp( F )dE
Ec
h kT

3 
4 1
n  3 (2me )  ( E  Ec ) 2 exp( E F  E )dE
 2

h Ec kT

3  1
4 E E
n  3 (2me ) 2 exp( F )  ( E  Ec ) 2 exp( )dE.....(2)
h kT Ec kT
 To solve equation 2, let us put

E  Ec  x
E  Ec  x
dE  dx
3  1
4 E E
 2
n  3 (2me ) exp( F
)  ( E  Ec ) exp(
2
)dE
h kT 0 kT
3  1
4 E E x
n  3 (2me ) 2 exp( F )  ( x) 2 exp ( c )dx
h kT 0 kT
3  1
4 E  E x
 2
n  3 (2me ) exp( F c
)  ( x ) exp (
2
)dx.....(3)
h kT 0
kT
 1
 1 3
x  2
we know that  ( x ) exp(
2
) dE  ( kT ) 2

0
kT 2

substitute in equation (3)

1
3 3
4  2 E  E  2
n  3 ( 2me ) exp( F c
) {(kT ) 2
}
h kT 2
2me kT 32 E F  Ec
n2 ( 2
) exp( )
h kT

The above equation represents

Number of electrons per unit volume of the Material
 Calculation of density of holes

Let ‘dp’ be the Number of holes or Vacancies in the

energy interval ‘E and E + dE’ in the valence band

dp  Z ( E )dE {1  F ( E )}
Ev
p  z ( E ){1  F ( E )}dE................(1)
bottom of the band

Where Z(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval

E and E + dE and
1-F(E) is the probability of existence of a hole.
 Density of holes in the Valence band is

3 1
4 
Z ( E ) dE  3 ( 2mh ) E dE 2 2
h
Since Ev is the energy of the top of the valence
band

3 1
4  2
Z ( E )dE  3 (2m ) ( Ev  E ) dE
h
2
h
Probability of an Electron occupying an energy state
E is given by
1
1  F (E)  1 { }
E  Ef
1  exp( )
kT
E  E f 1
1  F ( E )  1  {1  exp( )}
kT
neglect higher order terms in above exp ansion
for higher T values
E  Ef
1  F ( E )  exp( )
kT
Substitute Z(E) and 1 - F(E) values in Equation (1)

Ev
p  z ( E ){1  F ( E )}dE
bottom of the band
Ev 3 1
4 E  EF

 2
p 3
(2m ) ( Ev  E ) exp(
h
2
)dE

h kT
3 Ev 1
4  EF E
p  3 (2m ) exp(  2
h )  ( Ev  E ) exp( )dE....( 2)
2
h kT  kT
 To solve equation 2, let us put

Ev  E  x
E  Ev  x
dE   dx
3 Ev 1
4  EF E
 2
p  3 (2m ) exp(
h )  ( Ev  E ) exp( )dE 2
h kT  kT
3 0 1
4  EF Ev  x
 2
p  3 (2m ) exp(
h )  ( x) exp( 2
)( dx)
h kT  kT
3  1
4 Ev  E F x
 2
p  3 (2m ) exp(
h )  ( x) exp( )dx2
h kT 0
kT
 1
3 3
4  2Ev  E F  2
p  3 ( 2m ) exp(
h )(kT ) 2
h kT 2

 3
2m kT Ev  E F
p  2( h
2
) exp( 2
)
h kT

The above equation represents

Number of holes per unit volume of the Material
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
In intrinsic Semiconductors n = p
Hence n = p = n i is called intrinsic Carrier
Concentration
ni2  np
ni  np
2mekT 32 E F  Ec 2mh kT 32 Ev  E F
ni  {2 ( 2
) exp( )}{2( 2
) exp( )}
h kT h kT
2kT 32   34 E  Ec
ni  2( 2 ) (me mh ) exp( v )
h 2kT
3
2kT 2   4
3
 Eg
ni  2( 2 ) (me mh ) exp( )
h 2kT
 Fermi level in intrinsic Semiconductors
In intrinsic semiconductors n  p
2me kT 32 E F  Ec 2mh kT 32 Ev  E F
2( 2
) exp( )  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT h kT
2me kT 32 E F  Ec 2mh kT 32 Ev  E F
( 2
) exp( )( 2
) exp( )
h kT h kT
2 EF mh 32 Ev  E c
exp( )  (  ) exp( )
kT me kT
taking logarithms on both sides
 Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E
mh*  me*
Ef
Electron
energy

Ev

Valence band

Temperature
 2 EF 3 mh Ev  E c
 log(  )  ( )
kT 2 me kT
3kT mh 32 E v  Ec
EF  log(  )  ( )
4 me 2
In intrinsic semiconductor we know that me  mh
Ev  Ec
EF  ( )
2

Thus the Fermi energy level EF is located in the

middle of the forbidden band.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

• The Extrinsic Semiconductors are those in which

impurities of large quantity are present. Usually,
the impurities can be either 3rd group elements or
5th group elements.

• Based on the impurities present in the Extrinsic

Semiconductors, they are classified into two
categories.
1. N-type semiconductors
2. P-type semiconductors
 N - type
Semiconductors

When any pentavalent element such as Phosphorous,

Arsenic or Antimony is added to the intrinsic
Semiconductor , four electrons are involved in
covalent bonding with four neighboring pure
Semiconductor atoms.

The fifth electron is weakly bound to the parent

atom. And even for lesser thermal energy it is
released Leaving the parent atom positively ionized.
N-type
Semiconductor
Free electron

Si

Si P Si

Si Impure atom
(Donor)
The Intrinsic Semiconductors doped with pentavalent
impurities are called N-type Semiconductors.

The energy level of fifth electron is called donor level.

The donor level is close to the bottom of the conduction

band most of the donor level electrons are excited in to
the conduction band at room temperature and become
the Majority charge carriers.

Hence in N-type Semiconductors electrons are Majority

carriers and holes are Minority carriers.
 Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E Ed
Donor levels
Eg
Electron
energy

Ev

Valence band

Distance
 Carrier Concentration in N-type Semiconductor

• Consider Nd is the donor Concentration i.e., the

number of donor atoms per unit volume of the
material and Ed is the donor energy level.

• At very low temperatures all donor levels are filled

with electrons.

• With increase of temperature more and more donor

atoms get ionized and the density of electrons in the
conduction band increases.
Density of electrons in conduction band is given
by  3
2me kT 2 E F  Ec
n  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT

The density of Ionized donors is given

by
Ed  E F
N d {1  F ( Ed )}  N d exp( )
kT

At very low temperatures, the Number of electrons in

the conduction band must be equal to the Number of
ionized donors.

2mekT 32 E F  Ec Ed  E F
2( 2
) exp( )  N d exp( )
h kT kT
 Taking logarithm and rearranging we get
E F  Ec Ed  E F 2me kT 32
( )( )  log N d  log 2( 2
)
kT kT h
Nd
2 E F  ( Ed  Ec )  kT log 3
2me kT 2
2( 2
)
h
( Ed  Ec ) kT Nd
EF   log 3
2 2 2me kT 2
2( 2
)
h
at.,0k
( E d  Ec )
EF 
2
At 0k Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level
and the bottom of the Conduction band
 Density of electrons in the conduction band
2me kT 32 E F  Ec
n  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT
( E  Ec ) kT Nd
{ d  log 3
}  Ec
2 2 2me kT 2
2( )
E F  Ec h 2
exp( )  exp{ }
kT kT
1
E F  Ec ( E  Ec ) (Nd ) 2
Ec
exp( )  exp{ d  log 3 1
 }
kT 2kT 2me kT 2 2

kT
[ 2( ) ]
h2
1
E F  Ec ( E  Ec ) (Nd ) 2
exp( )  exp{ d  log 3 1
}
kT 2kT 2me kT 2 2

[ 2( 2
) ]
h
1
E F  Ec (Nd )2
( E d  Ec )
exp( ) 3 1
exp
kT 2me kT 2 2 2kT
[ 2( ) ]
h2
 2me kT 32 E F  Ec
n  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT
1
2me kT 32 (Nd )2
( E d  Ec )
n  2( 2
) {  3 1
exp }
h 2me kT 2 2 2kT
[ 2( 2
) ]
h
1  3
2 m kT ( E d  Ec )
n  2( N d ) (
2 e
2
) exp
4
h 2kT

Thus we find that the density of electrons in the

conduction band is proportional to the square root of the
donor concentration at moderately low temperatures.
 Variation of Fermi level with temperature

To start with ,with increase of temperature Ef increases

slightly.

As the temperature is increased more and more donor

atoms are ionized.

Further increase in temperature results in generation of

Electron - hole pairs due to breading of covalent bonds
and the material tends to behave in intrinsic manner.

The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic

Fermi level Ei.
 P-type semiconductors

• When a trivalent elements such as Al, Ga or Indium have

three electrons in their outer most orbits , added to the
intrinsic semiconductor all the three electrons of Indium are
engaged in covalent bonding with the three neighboring Si
atoms.

• Indium needs one more electron to complete its bond. this

electron maybe supplied by Silicon , there by creating a
vacant electron site or hole on the semiconductor atom.

• Indium accepts one extra electron, the energy level of this

impurity atom is called acceptor level and this acceptor level
lies just above the valence band.

• These type of trivalent impurities are called acceptor

impurities and the semiconductors doped the acceptor
impurities are called P-type semiconductors.
 Hole
Co-Valent
bonds Si

Si In Si

Si

Impure atom
(acceptor)
 Conduction band
Ec

Ec
E

Electron Eg
energy Acceptor levels
Ea
Ev

Valence band

temperature
• Even at relatively low temperatures, these
acceptor atoms get ionized taking electrons
from valence band and thus giving rise to holes
in valence band for conduction.

• Due to ionization of acceptor atoms only holes

and no electrons are created.

• Thus holes are more in number than electrons

and hence holes are majority carriers and
electros are minority carriers in P-type
semiconductors.
• Equation of continuity:

• As we have seen already, when a bar of n-type

germanium is illuminated on its one face, excess charge
carriers are generated at the exposed surface.

• These charge carriers diffuse through out the material.

Hence the carrier concentration in the body of the
sample is a function of both time and distance.

• Let us now derive the differential equation which governs

this fundamental relationship.

• Let us consider the infinitesimal volume element of area

A and length dx as shown in figure.
• If tp is the mean lifetime of the holes, the holes lost per
sec per unit volume by recombination is p/tp .
• The rate of loss of charge within the volume under
consideration

p
 eAdx
tp

If g is the thermal rte of generation of hole-electron

pairs per unit volume, rate of increase of charge wthin  eAdxg
the volume under consideration
• If i is the current entering
the volume at x and i + di
the current leaving the
volume at x + dx, then
decrease of charge per
second from the volume
under consideration = di dp
• Because of the above  eAdx
dt p

stated three effects the

hole density changes with
time.
• Increase in the number of
charges per second
within the volume

Increase = generation - loss

dp p
eAdx  eAdxg  eAdx  dI
dt p tp
Since the hole current is the sum of the diffusion current and the drift current

dp
I   AeD p  Ape h E
dx

Where E is the electric field intensity within the volume. when no external
field is applied, under thermal equilibrium condition, the hole density
attains a constant value p0.

dp
under these conditions di  0 and 0
dt
p0
g
tp
this equation indicates that the rate of generation of
holes is equal to therate of loss due to recombination
under equilibriu m conditions .
 combain,.eq s ...3,4 & 5.
dp ( p  p0 ) 2 p d ( pE )
  Dp 2  h
dt tp x dx

This is called equation of conservation of charge or the continuity equation.

if p is a function of both t and x,

partial derivatives should be used.
p ( p  p0 ) 2 p  ( pE )
  Dp   h
t tp x 2 x
if we are considering holes in the n - type material
pn ( p n  p0 n )  2 pn  ( pn E )
  Dp   h
t tp x 2 x
if we are considering electrons in the p - type material
n p ( n p  n0 p )  2np  (n p E )
  Dn  e
t te x 2 x
Direct band gap and indirect band gap semiconductors:

• We known that the energy spectrum of an electron

moving in the presence of periodic potential field is
divided into allowed and forbidden zones.

• In crystals the inter atomic distances and the internal

potential energy distribution vary with direction of the
crystal. Hence the E-k relationship and hence energy
band formation depends on the orientation of the
electron wave vector to the crystallographic axes.

• In few crystals like gallium arsenide, the maximum of the

valence band occurs at the same value of k as the
minimum of the conduction band as shown in below. this
is called direct band gap semiconductor.
 E Conduction
E Conduction
band
band

Eg
Eg
k k

Valence band Valence

band
• In few semiconductors like silicon the maximum of the
valence band does not always occur at the same k value
as the minimum of the conduction band as shown in
figure. This we call indirect band gap semiconductor.

• In direct band gap semiconductors the direction of

motion of an electron during a transition across the
energy gap remains unchanged.

• Hence the efficiency of transition of charge carriers

across the band gap is more in direct band gap than in
indirect band gap semiconductors.
 Hall effect

When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying

conductor or semiconductor, voltage is developed across the
specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the
magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall effect and voltage
so developed is called the Hall voltage.

Let us consider, a thin rectangular slab carrying current (i) in the x-

direction.
If we place it in a magnetic field B which is in the y-direction.
Potential difference Vpq will develop between the faces p and q which
are perpendicular to the z-direction.
 Z

+
VH + + + P + +
- Y

+ + + + + + + + B
+ ++ + + + + Q + + +
+

X
P – type semiconductor
i
 Z

-
_ _ _ _ P_ _
VH
+ Y

_
_ _ _ _
_ _Q_ _ __
B
_

X
N – type semiconductor
i
 Magnetic deflecting force

F  q (vd  B )
Hall eclectic deflecting force

F  qEH
When an equilibrium is reached, the magnetic deflecting force on
the charge carriers are balanced by the electric forces due to
electric Field.

q(vd  B)  qEH
E H  ( vd  B )
Where v d is drift velocity
 The relation between current density and drift velocity is

J
vd 
ne
Where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume.

E H  ( vd  B )
J
EH  (  B)
ne
1
E H  (  JB)
ne
E H  RH  JB
1 EH
RH ( Hall ,.coefficient )  
ne JB
If VH be the Hall voltage in equilibrium ,the Hall electric field.

VH
EH 
d
Where d is the width of the slab.
E
RH  H
JB
1 VH
RH  
JB d
If t is the thickness of the sample,
Then its cross section is dt and current density
I
J
dt
VH  RH JBd
I
VH  RH ( ) B
t
V t
RH  H
IB
• Since all the three quantities EH , J and B
are measurable, the Hall coefficient RH and
hence the carrier density can be found out.

• Generally for N-type material since the Hall

field is developed in negative direction
compared to the field developed for a P-
type material, negative sign is used while
denoting hall coefficient RH.