Water Resources Engineering

Reservoir
Western Institute of Technology
Masters of Engineering
CE711 Highway Traffic Engineering

Group 7
Mae Jane Virtucio
Toni Grace Sunico
Herneil Tuya
Objective:
The general aspects of reservoir design are discussed in this chapter, while the special aspects pertinent to
specific uses are covered more fully in Chaps. 14 to 21.
Intro
A water-supply, irrigation, or hydroelectric project drawing water directly from a stream may be unable to
satisfy the demands of its consumers during low flows. This stream, which may carry little or no water during
portions of the year, often becomes a raging torrent after heavy rains and a hazard to all activities along its
banks. A storage, or conservation, reservoir can retain such excess water from periods of high flow for use
during periods of drought. In addition to conserving water for later use, the storage of floodwater may also
reduce flood damage below the reservoir. Because of the varying rate of demand for water during the day,
many cities find it necessary to provide distribution reservoirs within their water supply system.
Whatever the size of a reservoir or the ultimate use of the water, the main function of a reservoir is to stabilize
the flow of water, either by regulating a varying supply in a natural stream or by satisfying a varying demand by
the ultimate consumers.
7-1 Physical characteristics of reservoirs

Since the primary function of reservoirs is to provide storage, their most important physical characteristic is
storage capacity. The capacity of a reservoir of regular shape can be computed with the formulas for the
volumes of solids. Capacity of reservoirs on natural sites must usually be determined from topographic surveys.
An area-elevation curve (Fig. 7-1) is constructed by planimetering the area enclosed within each contour within
the reservoir site. The integral of the area-elevation curve is the elevation-storage, or capacity, curve for the
reservoir. The increment of storage between two elevations is usually computed by multiplying the average of
the areas at the two elevations by the elevation difference. The summation of these increments below any
elevation is the storage volume below that level.
Normal pool level is the maximum elevation to which the reservoir surface will rise during ordinary operating conditions.
For most reservoirs normal pool is determined by the elevation of the spillway crest or the top of the spillway gates.
Minimum pool level is the lowest elevation to which the pool is to be drawn under normal conditions. This level may be
fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet in the dam or, in the case of hydroelectric reservoirs, by conditions of operating
efficiency for the turbines. The storage volume between the minimum and normal pool levels is called the useful storage.
Water held below minimum pool level is dead storage. In multipurpose reservoirs the useful storage may be subdivided into
conservation storage and flood-mitigation storage in accordance with the adopted plan of operation. Reservoir banks are
usually permeable, and water enters the soil when the reservoir fills and drains out as the water level is lowered. This bank
storage increases the capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation storage curve. The amount of bank
storage depends on geologic conditions and storage curve. The amount of bank storage depends on geologic conditions and
may amount to several percent of the reservoir volume. The water in a natural stream channel occupies a variable volume
of valley storage (Sec. 3-17). The net increase in storage capacity resulting from the construction of a reservoir is the total
capacity less the natural valley storage. This distinction is of no importance or conservation reservoirs, but from the
viewpoint of flood mitigation the effective storage in the reservoir is the useful storage plus the surcharge storage less
thenatural valley storage corresponding to the rate of inflow to the reservoir(Fig. 7-2).The preceding discussion has
assumed that the reservoir water surface is level. This is a reasonable assumption for most short, deep reservoirs.
Actually,however, if flow is passing the dam, there must be some slope to the water surface to cause this flow. If the cross-
sectional area of the reservoir is large comparedwith the rate of flow, the velocity will be small and the slope of the
hydraulic gradeline will be very flat. In relatively shallow and narrow reservoirs, the water surface
at high flows may depart considerably from the horizontal (Fig. 7-3). The wedge-shaped element of storage
above a horizontal is surcharge storage. The shape of the water-surface profile can be computed by using
methods for nonuniform flow(Sec. 10-4). A different profile will exist for each combination of inflow rate and
water-surface elevation at the dam. The computation of the water-surface profile is an important part of
reservoir design since it provides information on the water level at various points along the length of the
reservoir from which the land requirements for the reservoir can be determined. Acquisition of land or flowage
rights over the land is necessary before the reservoir can be built. Docks, houses, storm-drain outlets, roads,
and bridges along the bank of the reservoir must be located above the maximum water level expected in the
reservoir. Storage in reservoirs subject to marked backwater effects cannot be related to water-surface
elevation alone as in Fig. 7-1. A second parameter such as inflow rate or water-surface elevation on a gage near
the upper end of the reservoir must also be used. Storage volume under each profile can be computed from
cross sections by the methods used for earthwork computations.
7-2 Reservoir yield
Probably the most important aspect of storage-reservoirdesign is an analysis of the relation between yield and capacity.
Yield is the amount of water which can be supplied from the reservoir in a specified interval oftime. The time interval
may vary from a day for a small distribution reservoir to a year or more for a large storage reservoir. Yield is dependent
upon inflow and will vary from year to year. The safe, or firm, yield is the maximum quantity of waterwhich can be
guaranteed during a critical dry period. In practice, the critical period is often taken as the period of lowest natural flow
on record for the stream. Hence, there is a finite probability that a drier period may occur, with a yield evenless than the
safe yield. Since firm yield can never be determined with certainty it is better to treat yield in probabilistic terms. The
maximum possible yield equals the mean inflow less evaporation and seepage losses. If the flow were
absolutelyconstant no reservoir would be required; but, as variability of the flow increases,the required reservoir
capacity increases.Given a target yield, the selection of reservoir capacity is dependent on theacceptable risk that the
yield will not always be realized. A reservoir to supplymunicipal water should have a relatively low design yield so that
the risk of a period with yield below the design value is small. By contrast, an irrigation systemmay tolerate 20 percent of
the years with yield below the nominal design value. Water available in excess of safe yield during periods of high flow is
called secon- dary yield. Hydroelectric energy developed from secondary water may be sold tolarge industries on a
"when available" basis. Energy commitments to domesticusers must be on a firm basis and should not exceed the energy
which can be produced with the firm yield unless thermal energy (steam or diesel) is available to support the
hydroelectric energy. The decision is an economic one based on costs and benefits for various levels of design.
7-3 Selection of distribution-reservoir capacity for a given yield
Often a project design requires the determination of the reservoir capacity required to meet a specific demand.
Examples are found in municipal water supply or in irrigation when it is desired to irrigate a specified area.
Since the yield (outflow) is equal to the inflow plus or minus an increment of storage, the determination of the
capacity to supply a given yield is based on the storage equation [Eq. (3-12)]. In the long run, outflow must
equal inflow less waste and unavoidable losses. This is another way of saying that a reservoir does not make
water but merely permits its redistribution with respect to time.
A simple problem involving the selection of distribution reservoir capacity is given in Illustrative Example 7-1.
Here the required yield is based on an estimate of the maximum daily demand by the consumers. The inflow
rate is fixed by a decision to pump at a uniform rate. The reservoir capacity must be sufficient to supply the
demand at times when the demand exceeds the pumping rate. A similar solution would be used if a variable
pumping rate were assumed
• Illustrative example 7-1 The
water supply for a city is
pumped from wells to a
distribution reservoir. The
estimated hourly water
requirements for the maximum
day are indicated below. If the
pumps are to operate at a
uniform rate,what distribution
reservoir capacity is required?
• The average pumping rate is determined by
dividing the total pumped by 24. The required
reservoir capacity is the sum of the hourly
requirements from storage, or 2426 m3. This is
also shown graphically in Fig. 7-4; the required
storage is given by dt where O is the outflow
(demand) and / is the inflow (pumping rate).
• 7-4 Selection of capacity for a river reservoir
• The determination of required capacity for a river reservoir is usually called an operation study and is
essentially a simulation of the reservoir operation for a period of time in accord with an adopted set of rules.
An operation study may analyze only a selected "critical period " of very low flow, but modern practice favors
the use of a long synthetic record (Sec. 5-14). In the first case the study can do no more than define the
capacity required during the selected drought. With the synthetic data it is possible to estimate the reliability
of reservoirs of various capacities.
• When lengthy synthetic data are to be analyzed,
computer analysis is indicated and the sequent-peak
algorithm 1 is commonly used. Values of the
cumulative sum of inflow minus withdrawals
(including average evaporation and seepage) are
calculated (Fig. 7-5). The first peak (local maximum of
cumulative net inflow) and the sequent peak (next
following peak which is greater than the first peak)
are identified. The required storage for the interval is
the difference between the initial peak and the lowest
trough in the interval. The process is repeated for all
cases in the period under study and the largest value
of required storage is determined.
• Illustrative example 7-2
• What reservoir capacity is required to assure
a yield of 75,000 acre-ft yr for the inflows
shown in Fig. 7-6? Tangents to the mass
curve at A and B have slopes equal to the
demand of 75,000 acre-ft yr. The maximum
departure occurs at C and is 56,000 acre-ft.
This is the required reservoir capacity. Such a
reservoir would be full at A, depleted to
34,000 acre-ft of storage at D, and full again
at E. Between E and B the reservoir would
remain full and all inflow in excess of the
demand would be wasted downstream. At C
the reservoir would be empty and at F it
would be full again. Note that in this case
the storage must carry over 2 year.
• illustrative example 7-3
• What yield will be available if a reservoir of 30,000
acre-ft capacity is provided at the site for which
the mass curve of Fig. 7-7 applies? The tangents to
the mass curve of Fig. 7-7 are drawn so that their
maximum departure from the mass curve is
30,000 acre-ft. The tangent from B has the least
slope, 60,000 acre-ft/yr, and this is the minimum
yield. The tangent at A indicates a possible yield of
95,000 acre-ft in that year, but this demand could
not be satisfied between points B and C without
storage in excess of 30,000 acre-ft.
Illustrative Example 7-4 shows the computation of required capacity for a storage reservoir on a stream. The
required storage is the sum of the monthly increments of demand in excess of streamflow.

• Illustrative example 7-4 Given below

are monthly inflows during a low-
water period at the site of a
proposed dam, the corresponding
monthly evaporation and
precipitation at a nearby station, and
the estimated monthly demand for
water. Prior water rights require the
release of full natural flow or 100
acre- ft/month, whichever is least.
Assume that 25 percent of the rainfall
on the land area to be flooded by the
reservoir has reached the stream in
the past. Use a net increased pool
area of 1000 acres and an
evaporation pan coefficient of 0.7.
Find the required storage.
• 7-5 Reservoir reliability
• The reliability of a reservoir is defined as the probability that it will deliver the expected demand throughout
its lifetime without incurring a deficiency. In this sense lifetime is taken as the economic life, which is usually
between 50 and 100 years. We may estimate the reliability by generating stochastically (Sec. 5-14) 500 to
1000 traces, each trace equal in length to the adopted project life. Each trace may then be said to represent
one possible example of what might occur during the project lifetime, and all traces are equally likely
representatives of this future period. If the storage required to deliver a specified demand is calculated for
each trace, the resulting values of storage can be ranked in order of magnitude and plotted as a frequency
curve, or the theoretical curve can be calculated from the data. The Gumbel extreme-value distribution
appears to be the appropriate one for this purpose. The result is a reliability curve (Fig. 7-8) which indicates
the probability that the demands during the project life can be met as a function of reservoir capacity
• . For the stream of Fig. 7-8, a reservoir
capacity of 615,000 acre-ft (758 x 106 m 3
) is required if a reliability of 99.5 percent
is desired while 550,000 acre-ft (678 x
106 m3 ) are adequate if a reliability of 95
percent is acceptable. Zero risk or 100
percent reliability is impossible and the
traditional concept of safe yield or firm
yield has no meaning. Use of reliability
analysis permits one to compare the
costs of achieving various levels of
reliability and to determine whether an
increase in reliability is warranted.
• 7-6 Sediment transport by streams
• Every stream carries some suspended sediment and moves larger solids along the stream bed as bed load. Since the
specific gravity of soil materials is about 2.65, the particles of suspended sediment tend to settle to the channel
bottom but upward currents in the turbulent flow counteract the gravitational settling. When sediment-laden water
reaches a reservoir, the velocity and turbulence are greatly reduced. The larger suspended particles and most of the
bed load are deposited as a delta at the head of the reservoir (Fig. 7-9). Smaller particles remain in suspension longer
and are deposited farther down the reservoir, although the very smallest particles may remain in suspension for a
long time and some may pass the dam with water discharged through sluiceways, turbines, or the spillway. The
suspended sediment load of streams is measured by sampling the water, filtering to remove the sediment, drying,
and weighing the filtered material. Sediment load is expressed in parts per million (ppm), computed by dividing the
weight of the sediment by the weight of sediment and water in the sample and multiplying the quotient by 106 . The
sample is usually collected in a bottle held in a sampler (Fig. 7-10) which is designed to avoid distortion of the
streamlines of flow so as to collect a representative sample of the sediment-laden water. 1 Most of the available
sediment-load data have been gathered since about 1938. Because of poorly designed samplers, many of the early
data are of questionable accuracy. No practical device for field measurement of bed load is now in use. Bed load may
vary from zero to several times the suspended load. More commonly, though, it lies in the 5 to 25 percent range.
Einstein 2 has presented an equation for the calculation of bed-load movement on the basis of the size distribution of
the bed material and the streamflow rates.
• The relation between suspended-sediment transport Qs and streamflow Q is often represented by a logarithmic
plot (Fig. 7-11), which may be expressed mathematically by an equation of the form

• where n commonly varies between 2 and 3, and k, the intercept when Q is unity, is usually quite small. A
sediment-rating curve such as Fig. 7-11 may be used to estimate suspended-sediment transport from the
continuous record of streamflow in the same manner that the flow is estimated from the continuous-stage
record by use of a stage-discharge relation. The sediment rating is much less accurate than the corresponding
streamflow-rating curve. Rates of erosion vary from storm to storm with variations in rainfall intensity, soil
condition, and vegetal development. Sediment eroded from a basin during one storm may be deposited in the
stream channel, to remain until a subsequent storm washes it downstream. Portions of the drainage area may
be more susceptible to erosion than others, and higher sediment loads may be expected when a storm centers
over such areas. Thus, the rate of suspended-sediment transport and the rate of streamflow are rarely closely
correlated. Despite these inaccuracies, the sediment rating provides a useful tool for estimates of suspended
sediment transport. The total sediment transport may be estimated by adding a suitable amount to the
suspendedsediment transport to allow for the bed-load contribution. In the absence of suspended-sediment
data, the total sediment transport of a stream may be estimated by comparison with similar watersheds
whose sediment transports have been previously determined from suspended-sediment-load data or from
studies of reservoir-sediment accumulation. The total amount of sediment that passes any section of a stream
is referred to as the sediment yield or sediment production. Rates of sediment production for typical
watersheds in the United States are presented in Table 7-1. Mean annual sediment-production rates generally
range from 200 to 4000 tons/mi 2 (70 to 1400 t/km 2
• 7-7 Reservoir sedimentation
• The ultimate destiny of all reservoirs is to be filled with sediment. If the sediment inflow is large compared
with the reservoir capacity, the useful life of the reservoir may be very short.
• Our knowledge of reservoir sedimentation rates (Table 7-1) is based on sur-veys to determine the rate of
sediment accumulation 1 in reservoirs which have been in existence for many years. These surveys indicate
the specific weight of the settled sediments and the percentage of entering sediment which is deposited in
the reservoir. These data are necessary in order to interpret the data on sediment load of streams in terms of
reservoir sedimentation. The specific weight of settled sediments seems to vary with the age of the deposit
and the character of the sediment. Specific weights (dry) of sediment samples from reservoirs range from
about 40 to 110 pcf (650 to 1800 kg/m3 ) with an average of about 50 pcf (1000 kg/m3 ) for fresh sediments
and 80 pcf (1300 kg/m3 ) for old sediments. 2
• The percentage of the inflowing sediment which is
retained in a reservoir (trap efficiency) is a function
of the ratio of reservoir capacity to total inflow. A
small reservoir on a large stream passes most of its
inflow so quickly that the finer sediments do not
settle but are discharged downstream. A large
reservoir, on the other hand, may retain water for
several years and permit almost complete removal
of suspended sediment. Figure 7-12 relates
reservoir-trap efficiency to the capacity-inflow ratio
on the basis of data from surveys of existing
reservoirs. 1 The trap efficiency of a reservoir
decreases with age as the reservoir capacity is
reduced by sediment accumulation. Thus complete
filling of the reservoir may require a very long time,
but actually the useful life of the reservoir is
terminated when the capacity occupied by sediment
is sufficient to prevent the reservoir from serving its
intended purpose. Figure 7-12 may be used to
estimate the amount of sediment which a reservoir
will trap if the average annual sediment load of the
stream is known. The volume occupied by this
sediment can then be computed, using a reasonable
value of specific weight for the deposited sediment.
The useful life may be computed by determining the
total time required to fill the critical storage volume.
• Illustrative example 7-5 Using Fig. 7-12
find the probable life of a reservoir with
an initial capacity of 30,000 acre-ft if the
average annual inflow is 60,000 acre-ft
and the average annual sediment inflow is
200,000 tons. Assume a specific weight of
70 pcf for the sediment deposits. The
useful life of the reservoir will terminate
when 80 percent of its initial capacity is
filled with sediment.
• 7-8 Reservoir sedimentation control
• The most common procedure for dealing with the sediment problem is to designate a portion of the reservoir capacity as sediment storage. This is
a negative approach which in no way reduces the sedi- ment accumulation but merely postpones the date when it becomes serious.
• Actually, reservoir sedimentation cannot be prevented, but it may be retarded. One way of doing this is to select a site where the sediment inflow
is naturally low. Some basins are more prolific sources of sediment than others because of soil type, land slopes, vegetal cover, and rainfall
characteristics. If an alternative site exists, prolific sediment sources should be avoided. After a site has been selected, the reservoir capacity
should be made large enough to create a useful life sufficient to warrant the construction. Although trap efficiency of large reservoirs is high, it
does not increase linearly, and the useful life of a large reservoir is longer than that of a small reservoir if all other factors remain constant. Some
reduction in sediment inflow to a reservoir is possible by use of soil- conservation methods within the drainage basin. Terraces, strip cropping,
contour plowing, and similar techniques retard overland flow and reduce erosion. Check dams in gullies retain some sediment and prevent it from
entering the streams. Vegetal cover on the land reduces the impact force of raindrops and minimizes erosion. However, if a stream is denied its
normal sediment load, it will tend to scour its bed or cave its banks. Consequently, stream-bank protection by revet- ment, vegetation, or other
means is a necessary feature of a sediment-control plan. Conservation methods will never completely eliminate erosion and may be difficult to
justify economically in some areas. Sediment accumulation in reservoirs may be reduced by providing means for discharge of some sediment.
Sluice gates at various levels will sometimes permit discharge of the finer sediments before they have time to settle to the bottom. In many
reservoirs, a sediment-laden inflow may move through the pool as a density current, or layer of water with a density slightly different from that of
the main body of reservoir water. The density difference may result from the sediment, dissolved minerals, or temperature. Because of the density
difference, the water of the density current does not mix readily with the reservoir water and maintains its identity for a considerable time.
Reservoir-trap efficiency may be decreased from 2 to 10 percent if it is possible to vent such density currents through sluiceways. Physical removal
of sediment deposits is rarely feasible. Sluice gates near the base of the dam may permit flushing some sediment downstream, but the removal
will not extend far upstream from the dam. At the most favorable prices, removal by ordinary earth-moving methods would be expensive unless
the excavated sedi- ment has some sales value.
• 7-9 Wind setup and waves in reservoirs
• where Zs is the rise in feet (meters) above still-water level, Vw is the wind speed in miles (kilometers) per
hour, F is the fetch or length of water surface over which the wind blows in miles (kilometers), and d is the
average depth of the lake along the fetch in feet (meters). In SI metric units, the constant in the denominator
becomes 63,200.
• Wind setup is the tilting of the reservoir water surface caused by the movement of the surface water toward
the leeward shore under the action of the wind. This current of surface water is a result of tangential
stresses between the wind and the water and of differences in atmospheric pressure over the reservoir. The
latter, however, is, typically, a smaller effect. As a consequence of wind setup, the reservoir water surface is
above normal still-water level on the leeward side and below the still-water level on the windward side. This
results in hydrostatic unbalance, and a return flow at some depth must occur. The water-surface slope which
results is that necessary to sustain the return flow under conditions of bottom roughness and cross-sectional
area of flow which exist.
• Wave-height data gathered at two major reservoirs 2 confirm the
theoretical and experimental data for ocean waves if a modified value
of fetch is used. The derived equation is

• where zw is the average height in feet (meters) of the highest

one-third of the waves and is called the significant wave
height, Vw is the wind velocity in miles (kilometers) per hour
about 25 ft (7.6 m) above the water surface, and F is the fetch
in miles (kilometers). In SI metric units the coefficient
becomes 0.005. The equation is shown graphically in Fig. 7-14
1 together with lines showing the minimum duration of wind
required to develop the indicated wave height..
• Figure 7-15 shows the method of
computing the effective fetch for a
narrow reservoir. Since the design
must be made before the reservoir
is complete, wind data over land
must generally be used.
• Table 7-2 gives ratios of wind speed
over land to those over water and may
be used to correct observed wind to
reservoir conditions. Waves are critical
only when the reservoir is near
maximum levels. Thus in selecting the
critical wind speed for reservoirs
subject to seasonal fluctuation only
winds which can occur during the
season of maximum pool levels should
be considered. The direction of the
wind and the adopted fetch must also
be the same
• Table 7-3 gives ratios of z'/zw for waves of lower exceedance.

• When a wave strikes a land slope, it will run up the slope to a height above its open-water height. The amount
of run-up depends on the surface. Figure 7-16 shows the results of small-scale experiments on smooth slopes
and rubble mounds. Height of run-up zr is shown as a ratio zr /zw and is dependent on the ratio of wave height
to wavelength (wave steepness). Wavelength A for deep-water waves may be computed

where the wave period t w is given by

For shallow-water waves other length relations are appropriate. 2 In metric units the coefficient of Eq. (7-6)
becomes 0.32. The curves for rubble mounds represent extremely permeable construction, and for more typical
riprap on earth embankments the run-up may be somewhat higher, depending on both the permeability and the
relative smoothness of the surface.
• 7-10 Reservoir clearance
• The main disadvantages resulting from leaving the vegetation in the reservoir are the possibilities that (1)
trees will eventually float and create a debris problem at the dam, (2) decay of organic material may create
undesirable odors or tastes in water-supply reservoirs, and (3) trees projecting above the water surface may
create an undesirable appearance and restrict the use of the reservoir for recreation. Frequently all timber
which would project above the water surface at minimum pool level is removed. This overcomes most of the
problems cited above at some savings over the cost of complete clearance.
• 7-1 1 Reservoir leakage

• Most reservoir banks are permeable, but the permeability is so low that leakage is of no importance. If the
walls of the reservoir are of badly fractured rock, permeable volcanic material, or cavernous limestone,
serious leak- age may occur. This leakage may result not only in a loss of water but also in damage to
property where the water returns to the surface. If leakage occurs through a few well-defined channels or
within a small area of fractured rock, it may be possible to seal the area by pressure grouting. If the area of
leakage is large, the cost of grouting may be excessive.
• 7-12 Reservoir-site selection

• It is virtually impossible to locate a reservoir site having completely ideal characteristics. General rules for choice of reservoir sites are:

1. A suitable dam site must exist. The cost of the dam is often a controlling factor in selection of a site.

2. The cost of real estate for the reservoir (including road, railroad, cemetery, and dwelling relocation) must not be excessive.

3. The reservoir site must have adequate capacity.

4. A deep reservoir is preferable to a shallow one because of lower land costs per unit of capacity, less evaporation loss, and less likelihood of weed
growth.

5. Tributary areas which are unusually productive of sediment should be avoided if possible.

6. The quality of the stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use.

7. The reservoir banks and adjacent hillslopes should be stable. Unstable banks will contribute large amounts of soil material to the reservoir.

In 1963 a mass of earth 200 m high and 1600 m long with a volume in excess of 150 x 10 6 m 3 slid into Vaiont Reservoir (Italy). In addition to partially
filling the reservoir, the slide generated a wave which overtopped the thin arch dam by more than 50 m despite the fact that the reservoir was 25 m below
the crest before the slide. The dam did not fail but several hundred lives were lost and property damage downstream was extensive.