6.

3 Photochemical Smog
Significant ideas:
1) The combustion of fossil fuels produces primary
pollutants that may generate secondary pollutants and
lead to photochemical smog, the levels of which can
vary by topography, population density and climate.
2) Photochemical smog has significant impacts on
societies and living systems.
3) Photochemical smog can be reduced by decreasing
human reliance on fossil fuels..
As 2016 gave way to 2017, residents of Beijing, Tianjin, and
many other northern Chinese cities suffered through the
longest stretch of stifling air pollution ever recorded in the
country.,
6.3 Photochemical Smog
Big Questions:
•
To what extent have the solutions emerging from this
topic been directed at preventing environmental
impacts, limiting the extent of the environmental
impacts, or restoring systems in which environmental
impacts have already occurred?
•
How are the issues addressed in this topic of relevance
to sustainability or sustainable development?
•
In what ways might the solutions explored in this topic
alter your predictions for the state of human societies
and the biosphere some decades from now?
6.3 Photochemical Smog
Big Questions:
•
Outline the solutions to ground-level ozone. Why is
there still ground-level ozone?
•
Comment on the links between sustainability and
photochemical smog
•
Suggest how photochemical smog is likely to change in
the decades to come.
Understandings
Statement Guidance

6.3U1 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil The use of chemical symbols, formulae or equations
fuels include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, for the destruction of ozone is not required.
black carbon or soot, unburned hydrocarbons,
oxides of nitrogen, and oxides of sulfur.
6.3.U2 In the presence of sunlight, secondary pollutants
are formed when primary pollutants undergo a
variety of reactions with other chemicals already
present in the atmosphere.
6.3.U3 Tropospheric ozone is an example of a secondary
pollutant, formed when oxygen molecules react
with oxygen atoms that are released from
nitrogen dioxide in the presence of sunlight.
6.3.U4 Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and
damages plants (crops and forests), irritates eyes,
creates respiratory illnesses and damages fabrics
and rubber materials. Smog is a complex mixture
of primary and secondary pollutants, of which
tropospheric ozone is the main pollutant.
6.3.U5 The frequency and severity of smog in an area
depends on local topography, climate, population
density, and fossil fuel use.
Understandings
Statement Guidance

6.3.U6 Thermal inversions occur due to a lack of air

movement when a layer of dense, cool air is
trapped beneath a layer of less dense, warm air.
This causes concentrations of air pollutants to
build up near the ground instead of being
dissipated by “normal” air movements.
6.3.U7 Deforestation and burning, may also contribute
to smog.
6.3.U8 Economic losses caused by urban air pollution
can be significant.
6.3.U9 Pollution management strategies include:
altering human activity to consume less fossil
fuels—example activities include the purchase of
energy-efficient technologies, the use of public or
shared transit, and walking or cycling regulating
and reducing pollutants at the point of emission
through government regulation or taxation using
catalytic converters to clean the exhaust of
primary pollutants from car exhaust
regulating fuel quality by governments​adopting
clean-up measures such as reforestation,
regreening, and conservation of areas to
sequester carbon dioxide
Applications and Skills
Statement Guidance
6.3.A1 Evaluate pollution management strategies for Reference to Figure 3 Pollution Management
reducing photochemical smog.
The combustion of fossil fuels produces primary pollutants that
may generate secondary pollutants and lead to photochemical
smog, the levels of which can vary by topography population
density and climate
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological
materials, or other harmful materials into the Earth's
atmosphere, possibly causing disease, death to humans,
damage to other living organisms such as food crops, or
the natural or built environment
The combustion of fossil fuels produces primary pollutants that
may generate secondary pollutants and lead to photochemical
smog, the levels of which can vary by topography population
density and climate

The Problem
• 1 billion people are exposed to outdoor air pollution per
year
• 1 million premature deaths due to air pollution
• Causes losses in a countries production
• 90% of air pollution in LEDCs comes from old motor
vehicles
The combustion of fossil fuels produces primary pollutants that
may generate secondary pollutants and lead to photochemical
smog, the levels of which can vary by topography population
density and climate

Emission Standards
Air quality standards here are measured in micrograms per cubic meter
either per 24 hour mean or annual mean.

: EU Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC), WHO, 2006, Air quality guidelines: Global update 2005.
6.3.U2 in presence of sunlight, secondary pollutants are formed
when primary pollutants undergo a variety of reactions with other
chemicals already present in the atmosphere
Industrial Smog
• Industrial smog is a mixture of sulfur dioxide,
droplets of sulfuric acid, and a variety of suspended
solid particles emitted mostly by burning coal.
• In most developed countries where coal and heavy oil is
burned, industrial smog is not a problem due to
reasonably good pollution control or with tall
smokestacks that transfer the pollutant to rural areas.
• We see this brownish haze on sunny, warm, and dry
days.
6.3.U1 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels
include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, black carbon or soot,
unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur

• Emitted directly from

the polluting process
• Can be natural or
anthropogenic
6.3.U1 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels
include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, black carbon or soot,
unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur

http://noair-rors.weebly.com/air-pollution.html
6.3.U1 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels
include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, black carbon or soot,
unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur

Carbon oxides
Include:
• carbon monoxide (CO)
• carbon dioxide (CO2)

Both are colorless, odorless gases.

CO is toxic to both plants and

animals.
CO and CO2 are both greenhouse
gases.

https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/8903/annual-carbon-emissions-in-the-united-states
6.3.U1 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels
include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, black carbon or soot,
unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur

Particles
Particulates are solid particles
suspended in the air
• Ash
• Soot
• Dust
• Fecal matter

• They are commonly formed

from combustion of fossil fuels,
and can produce smog.
• Particulates can contribute to
asthma, heart disease, and
some types of cancers.
6.3.U1 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels
include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, black carbon or soot,
unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur

Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrogen oxides are produced
when nitrogen and oxygen
from the atmosphere come
together at high temperatures.

This occurs in hot exhaust gas

from vehicles, power plants, or
factories.

Nitrogen oxide (NO) and

nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are
greenhouse gases. Nitrogen
oxides contribute to acid rain.
6.3.U1 Primary pollutants from the combustion of fossil fuels
include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, black carbon or soot,
unburned hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulfur
6.3.U3 Tropospheric ozone is an example of a secondary
pollutant, formed when oxygen molecules react with oxygen
atoms that are released from nitrogen dioxide in the presence of
sunlight
• Nitrogen oxides form as a by
product of combustion
reactions
• Oxygen and nitrogen (both from
the air) react together as a
result of the high temperatures
• In normal conditions most
ozone molecules oxidize nitric
oxide back into nitrogen dioxide

https://www.learner.org
Photochemical Smog

Denver Los Angeles

6.3.U2 In presence of sunlight, secondary pollutants are formed
when primary pollutants undergo a variety of reactions with other
chemicals already present in the atmosphere
Section 11.2

Properties of the Atmosphere

Temperature inversion

A temperature inversion
is an increase in
temperature with height
in an atmospheric
layer.
 Temperature Inversions

• Cold, cloudy weather in a valley surrounded by

mountains can trap air pollutants (left).
• Areas with sunny climate, light winds, mountains on
three sides and an ocean on the other (right) are
susceptible to inversions.

Figure 19-5
Sunlight plus Cars Equals Photochemical Smog

• Photochemical smog is a mixture of air pollutants formed by the reaction of

nitrogen oxides and volatile organic hydrocarbons under the influence of
sunlight.
 Solar
radiation Photochemical Smog

Ultraviolet radiation

NO
Nitric oxide

O O2
H2O NO2 Atomic Molecular
Water Nitrogen oxygen oxygen
dioxide

Hydrocarbons

PANs
Peroxyacyl Aldehydes
nitrates (e.g., formaldehyde)

HNO3 O3
Nitric acid Ozone
Photochemical Smog
Tropospheric Ozone and Photochemical Smog
Formation

a. Ozone forms during the day and breaks down at night

b. If VOCs are present, they combine with NOx to form photochemical
oxidants, which reduce amount of ozone destroyed at night
Factors Influencing Levels of
Outdoor Air Pollution

• Outdoor air pollution can be reduced by:

• settling out, precipitation, sea spray, winds, and chemical reactions.
• Outdoor air pollution can be increased by:
• urban buildings (slow wind dispersal of pollutants), mountains (promote
temperature inversions), and high temperatures (promote photochemical
reactions).
6.3.U4 Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants
(crops and forests), irritates eyes, creates respiratory illness and
damages fabrics and rubber materials. Smog is a complex mixture
of primary and secondary pollutants, of which tropospheric ozone
is the main pollutant

• Ozone absorbed into plants through leaves

• Degrades chlorophyll
• Reduces photosynthesis therefore productivity

https://chem-guide.blogspot.com/2010/04/air-pollution-photochemical-smog.html
6.3.U4 Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants
(crops and forests), irritates eyes, creates respiratory illness and
damages fabrics and rubber materials. Smog is a complex mixture
of primary and secondary pollutants, of which tropospheric ozone
is the main pollutant

Click on the image to watch a video on effects of air pollution

6.3.U4 Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants
(crops and forests), irritates eyes, creates respiratory illness and
damages fabrics and rubber materials. Smog is a complex mixture
of primary and secondary pollutants, of which tropospheric ozone
is the main pollutant
Deaths from urban air pollution
6.3.U4 Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants
(crops and forests), irritates eyes, creates respiratory illness and
damages fabrics and rubber materials. Smog is a complex mixture
of primary and secondary pollutants, of which tropospheric ozone
is the main pollutant

• Attacks rubber, cellulose and

some plastics
• Reduces life of car tires
• Bleaches fabrics
6.3.U4 Tropospheric ozone is highly reactive and damages plants
(crops and forests), irritates eyes, creates respiratory illness and
damages fabrics and rubber materials. Smog is a complex mixture
of primary and secondary pollutants, of which tropospheric ozone
is the main pollutant

• Haze caused by high levels of atmospheric

pollutants, primary ozone and nitrogen
oxides, interacting with strong sunlight

https://www.e-education.psu.edu/egee102/node/1975
6.3.U5 The frequency and severity of smog in an area depends on
local, topography, climate, population density and fossil fuel use

http://oxfordre.com/environmentalscience/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780199
389414.001.0001/acrefore-9780199389414-e-536
6.3.U5 The frequency and severity of smog in an area depends on
local, topography, climate, population density and fossil fuel use

Highest in places that are

sunny, and have high traffic
density

Worse in areas where

topography limits air circulation

Mexico City
6.3.U5 The frequency and severity of smog in an area depends on
local, topography, climate, population density and fossil fuel use

A period of cold weather, combined with an

anticyclone and windless conditions,
collected airborne pollutants—mostly
arising from the use of coal—to form a
thick layer of smog over the city. It lasted
from Friday, 5 December, to Tuesday, 9
December 1952, and then dispersed
quickly when the weather changed.

Click on image for video on the London Fog

 40
Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide Ozone

30
Parts per million

20

10

0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A.M. Noon P.M.

Time
6.3.U6 Thermal inversions occur due to a lack of air movement
when a layer of dense, cool air is tapped beneath a layer of less
dense, warm air. This causes concentrations of air pollutants to
build up near the ground instead of being dissipated by normal air
movements
• Normal warm air from a city will rise, allowing pollutants to escape.
• On warm days a hot layer can trap the cooler air from the city, trapping the
pollutants.
• Rain can clear air pollutants.
• Wind will disperse it.

Click on the image to watch the video

6.3.U7 Deforestation and burning may also contribute to smog

https://helpsavenature.com/how-to-reduce-smog
6.3.U8 Economic losses caused by urban air pollution can be
significant

China is reported to be
suffering the economic
consequences of terrible urban
air pollution. 

According to a 2015 report by

RAND, health problems and
lost labor productivity due to
air pollution reached 6.5
percent of China's GDP per
year between 2000 and 2010.

https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/2166542/air-pollution-killing-1-
million-people-and-costing-chinese
6.3.U8 Economic losses caused by urban air pollution can be
significant
6.3.U9 Pollution management strategies include: altering human
activity to consume less fossil fuels – example activities include
the purchase of energy-efficient technologies, the use of public or
shared transit and walking or cycling
Altering human activity
• Consume less, burn less fossil fuel – especially in the internal
combustion engine.
• Act as informed consumers for purchase of energy efficient
technologies
• Use public/shared transit, walking and cycle paths.
• Decrease consumption of non-essential goods
• Government regulations at points of emission
6.3.U9 Pollution management strategies include: regulating and
reducing pollutants at the point of emission through government
regulations or taxation
Controlling the Release of Pollutants
• Use of catalytic converters
• Set emission standards
• International agreements – 1999 Gothenburg Protocol

https://carbonsimplicity.wordpress.com/2011/11/08/how-carbon-pricing-works/
6.3.U9 Pollution management strategies include: adopting clean-
up measures such as reforestation, regreening, and conservation
of areas to sequester carbon dioxide
Clean-up and Restoration
• Scrubbers
• Reforestation
• Conservation areas
• Spraying Water at junctions to
wash out pollution from
atmosphere

https://physicsworld.com/a/the-long-term-consequesnces-of/
6.3.A1 Evaluate pollution management strategies for reducing
photochemical smog
6.3.A1 Evaluate pollution management strategies for reducing
photochemical smog
6.3.A1 Evaluate pollution management strategies for reducing
photochemical smog

Consider strategies according to the 3-tier model

• Changing behavior to prevent emissions
• Increase energy efficiency
• Use public transportation
• Walk \cycle

On June 4th, 2012, the Mississippi National

River and Recreation Area (MISS)
celebrated the installation of the first 30
NPS-sponsored bike share stations 
6.3.A1 Evaluate pollution management strategies for reducing
photochemical smog

Consider strategies according to the 3-tier model

• Capturing/regulating emissions at the point of release
• Pollution taxes
• Catalytic converters
• Regulating fuel quality

American Electric Power’s Mountaineer coal

power plant in New Haven, West Virginia,
captures some of its carbon dioxide emissions.
6.3.A1 Evaluate pollution management strategies for reducing
photochemical smog

Consider strategies according to the 3-tier model

• Cleaning up or repairing impacts
• Reforestation
• Carbon sequestration

In many places destructive slash and

burn destroyed the forests,
eliminating native flora and fauna,
and filling the air with smoke and
pollutants. Since 2006, Pacha
Conservancy has been planting trees
in the Lucumayu Valley.
6.3.A1 Evaluate pollution management strategies for reducing
photochemical smog
Zipcar is an American car sharing company and a subsidiary of 
Avis Budget Group. Zipcar provides automobile reservations to its members,
billable by the minute, hour or day; members may have to pay a monthly or
annual membership fee in addition to car reservations charges

• http://www.zipcar.com/

Check out the video on zipcars. Click on the image