Air pollution

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Air pollution from World War II production.

Smog over Santiago

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that
cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural
environment, into the atmosphere.

The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on
planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a
threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Pollutants
 2 Sources
 o 2.1 Emission factors

 3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)

 4 Health effects
o 4.1 Effects on cystic fibrosis

o 4.2 Effects on COPD

o 4.3 The Great Smog of 1952

o 4.4 Effects on children

o 4.5 Health effects in relatively "clean" areas

 5 Reduction efforts
o 5.1 Control devices

 6 Legal regulations
o 6.1 Canada

o 6.2 European Union

 6.2.1 United Kingdom

o 6.3 United States

 7 Statistics
o 7.1 Most polluted cities

o 7.2 Carbon dioxide emissions

 8 Atmospheric dispersion
 9 Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants
 10 See also
 11 References

 12 External links

Pollutants
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas
Before flue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New
Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate
contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ozone concentration, (6)
increased levels of nitrogen oxides

An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the
environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In
addition, they may be natural or man-made.[1]

Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are
substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon
monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.

Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary
pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level
ozone — one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.

Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted
directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

About 4 percent of deaths in the United States can be attributed to air pollution, according to the
Environmental Science Engineering Program at the Harvard School of Public Health.
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

 Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula
SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and
petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.
Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4,
and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact
of the use of these fuels as power sources.
 Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature
combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of
cities.Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the
several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting
odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
 Carbon monoxide - is a colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is
a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular
exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion but is also a gas vital
to living organisms. It is a natural gas in the atmosphere.
 Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field
they are often divided into the separate categories of methane (CH4) and non-methane
(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to
enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse
gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the
atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the
NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected
carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is
another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses.

 Particulate matter - Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or

fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol
refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or
natural. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest
and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also
generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic
aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the
total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are
linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.

 Toxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently
banned from use.
  Ammonia (NH3) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the
formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor.
Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by
serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use,
ammonia is both caustic and hazardous.
 Odors — such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes
 Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

 Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in

photochemical smog .Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word "smog" is a portmanteau
of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area
caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come
from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere
by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to
form photochemical smog.
 Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of
the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere
commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it
drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night.
At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the
combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
 Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from NOx and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

 A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA
under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
 A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental
degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have
been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport,
bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential
significant impacts on human health and the environment.

Sources
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas

Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in preparation for spring planting

Sources of air pollution refer to the various locations, activities or factors which are responsible
for the releasing of pollutants in the atmosphere. These sources can be classified into two major
categories which are:

Anthropogenic sources (human activity) mostly related to burning different kinds of fuel

 "Stationary Sources" include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities

(factories) and waste incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of fuel-burning
heating devices

 "Mobile Sources" include motor vehicles, marine vessels, aircraft and the effect of sound
etc.

 Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forestry management.
Controlled or prescribed burning is a technique sometimes used in forest management,
farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a natural part of both
forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled
burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the
forest.

 Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents
  Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane.Methane is not toxic; however, it
is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also an
asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may
result if the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement

 Military, such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources

 Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with little or no vegetation.
 Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle.
 Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless,
naturally occurring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is
considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accumulate in
buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most
frequent cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.

 Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires.

 Volcanic activity, which produce sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates.

Emission factors

Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

Air pollutant emission factors are representative values that attempt to relate the quantity of a
pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant.
These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit weight, volume,
distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted
per megagram of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various
sources of air pollution. In most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of
acceptable quality, and are generally assumed to be representative of long-term averages.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has published a compilation of air pollutant
emission factors for a multitude of industrial sources.[2] The United Kingdom, Australia, Canada
and many other countries have published similar compilations, as well as the European
Environment Agency.[3][4][5][6][7]

Indoor air quality (IAQ)

Main article: Indoor air quality

A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollution where people often spend the majority of
their time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from the Earth in certain locations and
trapped inside houses. Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit formaldehyde
(H2CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead
paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional air pollution is introduced with the use
of air fresheners, incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires in stoves and fireplaces
can add significant amounts of smoke particulates into the air, inside and out[8]. Indoor pollution
fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and other chemical sprays indoors without proper
ventilation.

Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning and fatalities are often caused by faulty vents and chimneys,
or by the burning of charcoal indoors. Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from
poorly adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas,
hydrogen sulfide, out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning
fluids, for days after dry cleaning.

Though its use has now been banned in many countries, the extensive use of asbestos in
industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very dangerous material in
many localities. Asbestosis is a chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tissue of
the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing
materials in structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of breath) and are at an
increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not
always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be taken to distinguish between several
forms of relevant diseases. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), these may
defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma (generally a very rare form of cancer,
when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors, as gases and airborne particulates. Pets
produce dander, people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decomposed hair, dust mites in
bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings,
inhabitants emit methane, mold forms in walls and generates mycotoxins and spores, air
conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and houseplants, soil and
surrounding gardens can produce pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation
allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more than they would otherwise occur in nature.

Health effects
The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly
attributable to air pollution, with 1.5 million of these deaths attributable to indoor air pollution.[9]
"Epidemiological studies suggest that more than 500,000 Americans die each year from
cardiopulmonary disease linked to breathing fine particle air pollution. . ."[10] A study by the
University of Birmingham has shown a strong correlation between pneumonia related deaths and
air pollution from motor vehicles.[11] Worldwide more deaths per year are linked to air pollution
than to automobile accidents.[citation needed] Published in 2005 suggests that 310,000 Europeans die
from air pollution annually.[citation needed] Direct causes of air pollution related deaths include
aggravated asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and respiratory allergies.
[citation needed]
The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in diesel engine technology
(Tier 2) could result in 12,000 fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, 6,000
fewer emergency room visits by children with asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related
hospital admissions each year in the United States.[citation needed]

The worst short term civilian pollution crisis in India was the 1984 Bhopal Disaster.[12] Leaked
industrial vapors from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A.,
killed more than 2,000 people outright and injured anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000 others,
some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries.[citation needed] The United Kingdom suffered
its worst air pollution event when the December 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In
six days more than 4,000 died, and 8,000 more died within the following months.[citation needed] An
accidental leak of anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the former USSR in
1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have been the cause of hundreds of civilian deaths.[citation needed]
The worst single incident of air pollution to occur in the United States of America occurred in
Donora, Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and over 7,000 were injured.
[13]

The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and physiological
changes to difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing and aggravation of existing respiratory
and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or
emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health effects
of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body's respiratory system and the
cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a
person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individual's health status and genetics.[citation needed]

A new economic study of the health impacts and associated costs of air pollution in the Los
Angeles Basin and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that more than 3800 people
die prematurely (approximately 14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollution
levels violate federal standards. The number of annual premature deaths is considerably higher
than the fatalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which average fewer than 2,000 per
year [14].

Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to combustion derived particulate matter air pollution.
In several human experimental studies, using a well validated exposure chamber setup, DE has
been linked to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus formation.[15][16] This serves as
a plausible mechanistic link between the previously described association between particulate
matter air pollution and increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Effects on cystic fibrosis

Main article: Cystic fibrosis

A study from 1999 to 2000 by the University of Washington showed that patients near and
around particulate matter air pollution had an increased risk of pulmonary exacerbations and
decrease in lung function.[17] Patients were examined before the study for amounts of specific
pollutants like Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Burkholderia cenocepacia as well as their
socioeconomic standing. Participants involved in the study were located in the United States in
close proximity to an Environmental Protection Agency.[clarification needed] During the time of the
study 117 deaths were associated with air pollution. A trend was noticed that patients living
closer or in large metropolitan areas to be close to medical help also had higher level of
pollutants found in their system because of more emissions in larger cities. With cystic fibrosis
patients already being born with decreased lung function everyday pollutants such as smoke
emissions from automobiles, tobacco smoke and improper use of indoor heating devices could
add to the disintegration of lung function.[18]

Effects on COPD

Main article: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) include diseases such as chronic bronchitis,
emphysema, and some forms of asthma.[19]

A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great Smog of 1952 compared 293 London
residents with 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich, three towns with low
reported death rates from chronic bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers aged 40
to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outlying towns, the London subjects exhibited more
severe respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dyspnea), reduced lung function
(FEV1 and peak flow rate), and increased sputum production and purulence. The differences
were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to 59. The study controlled for age and smoking
habits, so concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of the observed differences.[20]

It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a more urban environment serious health
hazards become more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas patients suffer mucus
hypersecretion, lower levels of lung function, and more self diagnosis of chronic bronchitis and
emphysema.[21]

The Great Smog of 1952

Main article: Great Smog of 1952

Early in December 1952, a cold fog descended upon London. Because of the cold, Londoners
began to burn more coal than usual. The resulting air pollution was trapped by the inversion
layer formed by the dense mass of cold air. Concentrations of pollutants, coal smoke in
particular, built up dramatically. The problem was made worse by use of low-quality, high-
sulphur coal for home heating in London in order to permit export of higher-quality coal,
because of the country's tenuous postwar economic situation. The "fog", or smog, was so thick
that driving became difficult or impossible.[22]. The extreme reduction in visibility was
accompanied by an increase in criminal activity as well as transportation delays and a virtual
shut down of the city. During the 4 day period of fog, at least 4,000 people died as a direct result
of the weather.[23]

Effects on children
Cities around the world with high exposure to air pollutants have the possibility of children
living within them to develop asthma, pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections as well
as a low initial birth rate. Protective measures to ensure the youths' health are being taken in
cities such as New Delhi, India where buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate
the “pea-soup” smog.[24] Research by the World Health Organization shows there is the greatest
concentration of particulate matter particles in countries with low economic world power and
high poverty and population rates. Examples of these countries include Egypt, Sudan, Mongolia,
and Indonesia. The Clean Air Act was passed in 1970, however in 2002 at least 146 million
Americans were living in areas that did not meet at least one of the “criteria pollutants” laid out
in the 1997 National Ambient Air Quality Standards.[25] Those pollutants included: ozone,
particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead. Because children
are outdoors more and have higher minute ventilation they are more susceptible to the dangers of
air pollution.

Health effects in relatively "clean" areas

Even in areas with relatively low levels of air pollution, public health effects can be substantial
and costly. This is because effects can occur at very low levels and a large number of people can
potentially breathe in such pollutants. A 2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung
Association showed that a 1% improvement in ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations will
produce a $29 million in annual savings in the region in 2010[26]. This finding is based on health
valuation of lethal (mortality) and sub-lethal (morbidity) effects.

Reduction efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies and land use planning strategies available to
reduce air pollution. At its most basic level land use planning is likely to involve zoning and
transport infrastructure planning. In most developed countries, land use planning is an important
part of social policy, ensuring that land is used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy
and population as well as to protect the environment.

Efforts to reduce pollution from mobile sources includes primary regulation (many developing
countries have permissive regulations),[citation needed] expanding regulation to new sources (such as
cruise and transport ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment such as lawn
trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), increased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of
hybrid vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels (such as bioethanol, biodiesel, or conversion to
electric vehicles).

Control devices

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices by industry or
transportation devices. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust
stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.

 Particulate control
o Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
 o Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air
cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas
(such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic
precipitators are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow
of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particulate matter such as
dust and smoke from the air stream.
o Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a
blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal
system (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove
the dust).

o Particulate scrubbersWet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The

term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or
from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into
contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it
through a pool of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to remove the
pollutants.

 Scrubbers
o Baffle spray scrubber

o Cyclonic spray scrubber

o Ejector venturi scrubber

o Mechanically aided scrubber

o Spray tower

o Wet scrubber

 NOx control
o Low NOx burners

o Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

o Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)

o NOx scrubbers

o Exhaust gas recirculation

o Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

 VOC abatement
 o Adsorption systems, such as activated carbon

o Flares

o Thermal oxidizers

o Catalytic oxidizers

o Biofilters

o Absorption (scrubbing)

o Cryogenic condensers

o Vapor recovery systems

 Acid Gas/SO2 control

o Wet scrubbers

o Dry scrubbers

o Flue gas desulfurization

 Mercury control
o Sorbent Injection Technology

o Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)

o K-Fuel

 Dioxin and furan control

 Miscellaneous associated equipment

o Source capturing systems

o Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Legal regulations

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of
the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page.
Smog in Cairo

In general, there are two types of air quality standards. The first class of standards (such as the
U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for
specific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in
attainment of these target levels. The second class (such as the North American Air Quality
Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the
public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or may not distinguish between
different pollutants.

Canada

In Canada, air quality is typically evaluated against standards set by the Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment (CCME), an inter-governmental body of federal, provincial and
territorial Ministers responsible for the environment. The CCME has set Canada Wide
Standards(CWS).[27][28] These are:

 CWS for PM2.5 = 30 µg/m3 (24 hour averaging time, by year 2010, based on 98th
percentile ambient measurement annually, averaged over 3 consecutive years).

 CWS for ozone = 65 ppb (8-hour averaging time, by year 2010, achievement is based on
the 4th highest measurement annually, averaged over 3 consecutive years).

Note that there is no consequence in Canada to not achieving these standards. In addition, these
only apply to jurisdictions with populations greater than 100,000. Further, provinces and
territories may set more stringent standards than those set by the CCME.

European Union

A report from the European Environment Agency shows that road transport remains Europe’s
single largest air polluter [29] .
National Emission Ceilings (NEC) for certain atmospheric pollutants are regulated by Directive
2001/81/EC (NECD).[30] As part of the preparatory work associated with the revision of the
NECD, the European Commission is assisted by the NECPI working group (National Emission
Ceilings – Policy Instruments).[31]

Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 May 2008 on
ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe (the new Air Quality Directive) has entried into
force 2008-06-11 [32].

Individual citizens can force their local councils to tackle air pollution, following an important
ruling in July 2009 from the European Court of Justice (ECJ). The EU’s court was asked to judge
the case of a resident of Munich, Dieter Janecek, who said that under the 1996 EU Air Quality
Directive (Council Directive 96/62/EC of 27 September 1996 on ambient air quality assessment
and management [33]) the Munich authorities were obliged to take action to stop pollution
exceeding specified targets. Janecek then took his case to the ECJ, whose judges said European
citizens are entitled to demand air quality action plans from local authorities in situations where
there is a risk that EU limits will be overshot. [29] .

United Kingdom

Air quality targets set by the UK's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(DEFRA) are mostly aimed at local government representatives responsible for the management
of air quality in cities, where air quality management is the most urgent. The UK has established
an air quality network where levels of the key air pollutants[34] are published by monitoring
centers.[35] Air quality in Oxford, Bath and London[36] is particularly poor. One controversial
study[37] performed by the Calor Gas company and published in the Guardian newspaper
compared walking in Oxford on an average day to smoking over sixty light cigarettes.

More precise comparisons can be collected from the UK Air Quality Archive[38] which allows the
user to compare a cities management of pollutants against the national air quality objectives[39]
set by DEFRA in 2000.

Localized peak values are often cited, but average values are also important to human health.
The UK National Air Quality Information Archive offers almost real-time monitoring of "current
maximum" air pollution measurements for many UK towns and cities.[40] This source offers a
wide range of constantly updated data, including:

 Hourly Mean Ozone (µg/m³)

 Hourly Mean Nitrogen dioxide (µg/m³)
 Maximum 15-Minute Mean Sulphur dioxide (µg/m³)
 8-Hour Mean Carbon monoxide (mg/m³)
 24-Hour Mean PM10 (µg/m³ Grav Equiv)
DEFRA acknowledges that air pollution has a significant effect on health and has produced a
simple banding index system[41] is used to create a daily warning system that is issued by the
BBC Weather Service to indicate air pollution levels.[42] DEFRA has published guidelines for
people suffering from respiratory and heart diseases.[43]

United States

Looking down from the Hollywood Hills, with Griffith Observatory on the hill in the
foreground, air pollution is visible in downtown Los Angeles on a late afternoon.

In the 1960s, 70s, and 90s, the United States Congress enacted a series of Clean Air Acts which
significantly strengthened regulation of air pollution. Individual U.S. states, some European
nations and eventually the European Union followed these initiatives. The Clean Air Act sets
numerical limits on the concentrations of a basic group of air pollutants and provide reporting
and enforcement mechanisms.

In 1999, the United States EPA replaced the Pollution Standards Index (PSI) with the Air Quality
Index (AQI) to incorporate new PM2.5 and Ozone standards.

The effects of these laws have been very positive. In the United States between 1970 and 2006,
citizens enjoyed the following reductions in annual pollution emissions:[44]

 carbon monoxide emissions fell from 197 million tons to 89 million tons
 nitrogen oxide emissions fell from 27 million tons to 19 million tons
 sulfur dioxide emissions fell from 31 million tons to 15 million tons
 particulate emissions fell by 80%
 lead emissions fell by more than 98%

In an October 2006 letter to EPA, the agency's independent scientific advisors warned that the
ozone smog standard “needs to be substantially reduced” and that there is “no scientific
justification” for retaining the current, weaker standard. The scientists unanimously
recommended a smog threshold of 60 to 70 ppb after they conducted an extensive review of the
evidence. [45]

The EPA has proposed, in June 2007, a new threshold of 75 ppb. This is less strict than the
scientific recommendation, but is more strict than the current standard.
Some industries are lobbying to keep the current standards in place. Environmentalists and
public health advocates are mobilizing to support the scientific recommendations.[citation needed]

The National Ambient Air Quality Standards are pollution thresholds which trigger mandatory
remediation plans by state and local governments, subject to enforcement by the EPA.

An outpouring of dust layered with man-made sulfates, smog, industrial fumes, carbon grit, and
nitrates is crossing the Pacific Ocean on prevailing winds from booming Asian economies in
plumes so vast they alter the climate. Almost a third of the air over Los Angeles and San
Francisco can be traced directly to Asia. With it comes up to three-quarters of the black carbon
particulate pollution that reaches the West Coast. [46]

Libertarians typically suggest propertarian methods of stopping pollution. They advocate strict
liability which would hold accountable anyone who causes polluted air to emanate into someone
else's airspace. This offense would be considered aggression, and damages could be sought in
court under the common law, possibly through class action suits.[47] Since in a libertarian society,
highways would be privatized under a system of free market roads, the highway owners would
also be held liable for pollution emanating from vehicles traveling along their property. This
would give them a financial incentive to keep the worst polluters off of their roads.

Statistics

This section requires expansion.

Most polluted cities

Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely Most Polluted World Cities by PM[48]
populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing Particulate
countries where environmental regulations are matter, City
relatively lax or nonexistent. However, even populated μg/m³ (2004)
areas in developed countries attain unhealthy levels of 169 Cairo, Egypt
pollution. 150 Delhi, India
128 Kolkata, India (Calcutta)
Carbon dioxide emissions 125 Tianjin, China
123 Chongqing, China
Total CO2 emissions 109 Kanpur, India
Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide 109 Lucknow, India
Countries with the highest CO2 emissions 104 Jakarta, Indonesia
Carbon dioxide emissions per
Percentage of101 Shenyang, China
Country global total
year (106 Tons) (2006) emissions
China 6,103 21.5%
United States 5,752 20.2%
Russia 1,564 5.5%
India 1,510 5.3%
Japan 1293 4.6%
Germany 805 2.8%
United Kingdom 568 2.0%
Canada 544 1.9%
South Korea 475 1.7%
Italy 474 1.7%
Per capita CO2 emissions[49]
Main article: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
Countries with the highest per capita CO2 emissions
Carbon dioxide emissions per year
Country
(Tons per person) (2006)
 Qatar 56.2
 United Arab Emirates 32.8 Atmospheric
 Kuwait 31.2
dispersion
 Bahrain 28.8
 Trinidad and Tobago 25.3 Main article: Atmospheric
 Luxembourg 24.5 dispersion modeling
 Netherlands Antilles 22.8
 Aruba 22.3 The basic technology for
 United States 19 analyzing air pollution is
 Australia 18.1 through the use of a variety of
mathematical models for
predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies
are:

 Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources.

 Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway air dispersion modeling
 Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or duststorms
 Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog

Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion plume as used in many atmospheric
dispersion models

The point source problem is the best understood, since it involves simpler mathematics and has
been studied for a long period of time, dating back to about the year 1900. It uses a Gaussian
dispersion model for buoyant pollution plumes to forecast the air pollution isopleths, with
consideration given to wind velocity, stack height, emission rate and stability class (a measure of
atmospheric turbulence).[50][51] This model has been extensively validated and calibrated with
experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.

The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in
response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and the U.S. Department of
Transportation (then known as the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of
proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were
active in this model development, among which were: the Environmental Research and
Technology (ERT) group in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in Sunnyvale,
California and the California Air Resources Board group in Sacramento, California. The research
of the ESL group received a boost with a contract award from the United States Environmental
Protection Agency to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride as a tracer gas. This
program was successful in validating the line source model developed by ESL inc. Some of the
earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution, the Arlington,
Virginia portion of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening project through East
Brunswick, New Jersey.

Area source models were developed in 1971 through 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but
addressed a smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that their use and need was not as
widespread as the line source model, which enjoyed hundreds of different applications as early
as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 1970s,
but their use was more specialized and for regional needs, such as understanding smog formation
in Los Angeles, California.

Environmental impacts of greenhouse gas pollutants

Main articles: Ocean acidification and Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon whereby greenhouse gases create a condition in the
upper atmosphere causing a trapping of heat and leading to increased surface and lower
tropospheric temperatures. Carbon dioxide from combustion of fossil fuels is the major problem.
Other greenhouse gases include methane, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons,
chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and ozone.

This effect has been understood by scientists for about a century, and technological
advancements during this period have helped increase the breadth and depth of data relating to
the phenomenon. Currently, scientists are studying the role of changes in composition of
greenhouse gases from natural and anthropogenic sources for the effect on climate change.

A number of studies have also investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause increases in the acidity of ocean waters and the possible
effects of this on marine ecosystems.

See also
 Acid rain  Environmentalism
 Air Hygiene Foundation  Flue gas desulfurization
 Air pollutant concentrations  Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel
combustion
 Air pollution in British Columbia
 Global Atmosphere Watch
 Air Quality Index
 Global dimming
 Air stagnation
 Global warming
 AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant
Emission Factors  Greenhouse effect
 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary  Haze
Haze Pollution
 Health Effects Institute (HEI)
 Asian brown cloud
 Indicator value
 Atmospheric chemistry
 International Agency for Research on
 Atmospheric dispersion modeling Cancer
 Beehive burner  Kyoto Protocol
 Best Available Control Technology  Light water reactor sustainability
 Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion  List of natural disasters by death
modeling toll#Smog
 Building biology  Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate
 List of atmospheric dispersion models  National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(USA EPA)
 Critical load
 NASA Clean Air Study
 Cruise ship pollution
 Particulate
 Emission standard
 Polluter pays principle
 Emissions & Generation Resource
Integrated Database (eGRID)  Ship pollution
 Emission-free zone  Smog and Haze

 Environmental agreement  Spare the Air program (California)

 Stench

 Tire fire
References
1. ^ EPA: Air Pollutants
2. ^ AP 42, Volume I
3. ^ United Kingdom's emission factor database
4. ^ European Environment Agency's 2005 Emission Inventory Guidebook
5. ^ Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference
manual)
6. ^ Australian National Pollutant Inventory Emissions Estimation Technique Manuals
7. ^ Canadian GHG Inventory Methodologies
8. ^ Duflo, E., Greenstone, M., and Hanna, R. (2008) “Indoor air pollution, health and
economic well-being”. S.A.P.I.EN.S. 1 (1)
9. ^ Estimated deaths & DALYs attributable to selected environmental risk factors, by
WHO Member State, 2002
10. ^ "Newly detected air pollutant mimics damaging effects of cigarette smoke".
www.eurekalert.org. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-08/acs-
nda072308.php. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
11. ^ "Study links traffic pollution to thousands of deaths" (in English). The Guardian
(London, UK: Guardian Media Group). 2008-04-15.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/apr/15/health. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
12. ^ Simi Chakrabarti. "20th anniversary of world's worst industrial disaster". Australian
Broadcasting Corporation.
http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2004/s1257352.htm.
13. ^ Davis, Devra (2002). When Smoke Ran Like Water: Tales of Environmental Deception
and the Battle Against Pollution. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-01521-2.
14. ^ http://www.sacbee.com/378/story/1393268.html ,
http://www.latimes.com/features/health/la-me-pollute13-2008nov13,0,5432723.story ,
http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/11/13/MNQP143CPV.DTL
15. ^ Diesel exhaust inhalation increases thrombus formation in man† Andrew J. Lucking1*,
Magnus Lundback2, Nicholas L. Mills1, Dana Faratian1, Stefan L. Barath2, Jamshid
Pourazar2, Flemming R. Cassee3, Kenneth Donaldson1, Nicholas A. Boon1, Juan J.
Badimon4, Thomas Sandstrom2, Anders Blomberg2, and David E. Newby1
16. ^ Persistent Endothelial Dysfunction in Humans after Diesel Exhaust Inhalation Ha°kan
To¨rnqvist1*, Nicholas L. Mills2*, Manuel Gonzalez3, Mark R. Miller2, Simon D.
Robinson2, Ian L. Megson4, William MacNee5, Ken Donaldson5, Stefan So¨derberg3,
David E. Newby2, Thomas Sandstro¨m1, and Anders Blomberg1
17. ^ Christopher H. Goss, Stacey A. Newsom, Jonathan S. Schildcrout, Lianne Sheppard
and Joel D. Kaufman (2004). "Effect of Ambient Air Pollution on Pulmonary
Exacerbations and Lung Function in Cystic Fibrosis". American Journal of Respiratory
and Critical Care Medicine 169: 816–821. doi:10.1164/rccm.200306-779OC. PMID
14718248.
18. ^ Michael Kymisis, Konstantinos Hadjistavrou (2008). "Short-Term Effects Of Air
Pollution Levels On Pulmonary Function Of Young Adults". The Internet Journal of
Pulmonary Medicine 9 (2). http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index.php?
xmlFilePath=journals/ijpm/vol9n2/pollution.xml.
19. ^ Zoidis, John D. (1999). "The Impact of Air Pollution on COPD". RT: for Decision
Makers in Respiratory Care. http://www.rtmagazine.com/issues/articles/1999-10_06.asp.
20. ^ Holland WW, Reid DD. The urban factor in chronic bronchitis. Lancet. 1965;I:445-
448.
21. ^ J. Sunyer (2001). "Urban air pollution and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease: a
review". European Respiratory Journal 17: 1024–1033.
doi:10.1183/09031936.01.17510240. PMID 11488305.
http://erj.ersjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/5/1024.
22. ^ Nielsen, John (2002-12-12). "The Killer Fog of ’52: Thousands died as Poisonous Air
Smothered London". National Public Radio.
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=873954.
23. ^ "On this Day: 1952 London Fog Clears After days of Chaos". BBC News. 2005-12-09.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/9/newsid_4506000/4506390.st
m.
24. ^ "Polluted Cities: The Air Children Breathe" (PDF). World Health Organization.
http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/en/11airpollution.pdf.
25. ^ Committee on Environmental Health (2004). "Ambient Air Pollution: Health Hazards
to Children". Pediatrics 114 (6): 1699–1707. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-2166. PMID
15574638.
26. ^ 2005 BC Lung Association report on the valuation of health impacts from air quality in
the Lower Fraser Valley airshed
27. ^ Canada-wide Standards
28. ^ Canada-Wide Standards for Particulate Matter (PM) and Ozone
29. ^ a b http://correu.cs.san.gva.es/exchweb/bin/redir.asp?
URL=http://www.transportenvironment.org/Publications/prep_hand_out/lid:516
30. ^ Directive 2001/81/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October
2001 on national emission ceilings for certain atmospheric pollutants
31. ^ Terms of Reference, Working Group on the Revision of National Emissions Ceilings
and Policy InstrumentsPDF (24.4 KiB)
32. ^ http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:152:SOM:EN:HTML
33. ^ OJ L 296, 21.11.1996, p. 55. Directive as amended by Regulation (EC) No 1882/2003
of the European Parliament and of the Council (OJ L 284, 31.10.2003, p. 1); Directives
96/62/EC, 1999/30/EC, 2000/69/EC and 2002/3/EC shall be repealed as from 11 June
2010
34. ^ The Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA): Air Pollution
35. ^ LAQM Air Quality Management Areas
36. ^ London
37. ^ Taking the Oxford air adds up to a 60-a-day habit (a newspaper article in The
Guardian)
38. ^ UK Air Quality Archive
39. ^ UK National Air Quality Objectives
40. ^ Current Air Pollution Bulletin
41. ^ Air Pollution Bandings and Indexes
42. ^ BBC Weather Service
43. ^ Air Pollution - What it means for your health
44. ^ Wall Street Journal article, May 23, 2006
45. ^ American Lung Association, June 2, 2007
46. ^ Wall Street Journal article, July 20, 2007
47. ^ Rothbard, Murray. "Conservation, Ecology, and Growth". For a New Liberty: The
Libertarian Manifesto. pp. 256–257.
48. ^ World Bank Statistics
49. ^ International Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Carbon Intensity Energy Information
Administration
50. ^ Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to
dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
51. ^ Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-
published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com
Water pollution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Raw sewage and industrial waste flows across international borders New River passes from
Mexicali to Calexico, California.

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, groundwater).

Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water; and, in almost all
cases the effect is damaging either to individual species and populations, but also to the natural
biological communities.

Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Introduction
 2 Water pollution categories
o 2.1 Point source pollution

o 2.2 Non-point source pollution

 3 Groundwater pollution
 4 Causes of water pollution
o 4.1 Pathogens

o 4.2 Chemical and other contaminants

o 4.3 Thermal pollution

 5 Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

 6 Measurement of water pollution
o 6.1 Sampling

o 6.2 Physical testing

o 6.3 Chemical testing

o 6.4 Biological testing

 7 Control of water pollution

o 7.1 Domestic sewage

o 7.2 Industrial wastewater

 o 7.3 Agricultural wastewater

o 7.4 Construction site stormwater

o 7.5 Urban runoff (stormwater)

 8 See also
 9 References

 10 External links

[edit] Introduction

Millions depend on the polluted Ganges river.

Water pollution is a major problem in the global context. It has been suggested that it is the
leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases,[1][2] and that it accounts for the deaths of more
than 14,000 people daily.[2] An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet,
and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day.[3] Some 90% of China's cities
suffer from some degree of water pollution,[4] and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe
drinking water.[5] In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries,
industrialized countries continue to struggle with pollution problems as well. In the most recent
national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47
percent of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were
classified as polluted.[6]

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and

either does not support a human use, like serving as drinking water, and/or undergoes a marked
shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena
such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water
quality and the ecological status of water.

[edit] Water pollution categories

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate resources,
although they are interrelated.[7] Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into
two categories based on their origin.
[edit] Point source pollution

Point source pollution - Shipyard - Rio de Janeiro.

Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway through a discrete
conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges
from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S. Clean Water Act
(CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes.[8] The CWA definition of point
source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial
stormwater, such as from construction sites.[9]

[edit] Non-point source pollution

Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. NPS pollution is often accumulative effect of small amounts of
contaminants gathered from a large area. The leaching out of nitrogen compounds from
agricultural land which has been fertilized is a typical example. Nutrient runoff in stormwater
from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of NPS
pollution.

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban runoff,
is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically
channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through pipes to local surface waters, and is a
point source. However where such water is not channeled and drains directly to ground it is a
non-point source.

[edit] Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently, groundwater
pollution, sometimes referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily classified as
surface water pollution.[7] By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are susceptible to
contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water bodies, and the distinction
of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant. A spill of a chemical contaminant on soil,
located away from a surface water body, may not necessarily create point source or non-point
source pollution, but nonetheless may contaminate the aquifer below. Analysis of groundwater
contamination may focus on soil characteristics and hydrology, as well as the nature of the
contaminant itself. See Hydrogeology.
[edit] Causes of water pollution
The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals,
pathogens, and physical or sensory changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration.
While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring
(calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what
is a natural component of water, and what is a contaminant.

Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials, such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and
grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause
turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of some
fish species.[10]

Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either
human or animal hosts. Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH),
electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the
concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary
productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative
environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality
may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

[edit] Pathogens

A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer overflow.

Coliform bacteria are a commonly-used bacterial indicator of water pollution, although not an
actual cause of disease. Other microorganisms sometimes found in surface waters which have
caused human health problems include:

 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Novovirus and other viruses
  Parasitic worms (helminths).[11][12]

High levels of pathogens may result from inadequately treated sewage discharges.[13] This can be
caused by a sewage plant designed with less than secondary treatment (more typical in
less-;;developed countries). In developed countries, older cities with aging infrastructure may
have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which can cause sanitary sewer
overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which may discharge untreated sewage
during rain storms.[14]

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly-managed livestock operations.

[edit] Chemical and other contaminants

Muddy river polluted by sediment. Photo courtesy of United States Geological Survey.

Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.

Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such as
chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical
compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and
lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from stormwater runoff[15]
 Tree and bush debris from logging operations
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids (DNAPLs), may fall to
the bottom of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)
 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates--which are found in stormwater
runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use[15]
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban stormwater runoff)[15][16] and acid mine
drainage
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land
clearing sites

Macroscopic pollution—large visible items polluting the water—may be termed "floatables" in

an urban stormwater context, or marine debris when found on the open seas, and can include
such items as:

 Trash (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground, and that are
washed by rainfall into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships

Potrero Generating Station discharges heated water into San Francisco Bay.[17]

[edit] Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by
human influence. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power
plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water temperatures decreases oxygen levels (which
can kill fish) and affects ecosystem composition, such as invasion by new thermophilic species.
Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in surface waters.

Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of
reservoirs into warmer rivers.

[edit] Transport and chemical reactions of water pollutants

See also: Marine pollution

Most water pollutants are eventually carried by rivers into the oceans. In some areas of the world
the influence can be traced hundred miles from the mouth by studies using hydrology transport
models. Advanced computer models such as SWMM or the DSSAM Model have been used in
many locations worldwide to examine the fate of pollutants in aquatic systems. Indicator filter
feeding species such as copepods have also been used to study pollutant fates in the New York
Bight, for example. The highest toxin loads are not directly at the mouth of the Hudson River,
but 100 kilometers south, since several days are required for incorporation into planktonic tissue.
The Hudson discharge flows south along the coast due to coriolis force. Further south then are
areas of oxygen depletion, caused by chemicals using up oxygen and by algae blooms, caused by
excess nutrients from algal cell death and decomposition. Fish and shellfish kills have been
reported, because toxins climb the food chain after small fish consume copepods, then large fish
eat smaller fish, etc. Each successive step up the food chain causes a stepwise concentration of
pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury) and persistent organic pollutants such as DDT.
This is known as biomagnification, which is occasionally used interchangeably with
bioaccumulation.

Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. The North Pacific Gyre for
example has collected the so-called "Great Pacific Garbage Patch" that is now estimated at 100
times the size of Texas. Many of these long-lasting pieces wind up in the stomachs of marine
birds and animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways which leads to reduced
appetite or even starvation.

Many chemicals undergo reactive decay or chemically change especially over long periods of
time in groundwater reservoirs. A noteworthy class of such chemicals is the chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as trichloroethylene (used in industrial metal degreasing and electronics
manufacturing) and tetrachloroethylene used in the dry cleaning industry (note latest advances in
liquid carbon dioxide in dry cleaning that avoids all use of chemicals). Both of these chemicals,
which are carcinogens themselves, undergo partial decomposition reactions, leading to new
hazardous chemicals (including dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride).

Groundwater pollution is much more difficult to abate than surface pollution because
groundwater can move great distances through unseen aquifers. Non-porous aquifers such as
clays partially purify water of bacteria by simple filtration (adsorption and absorption), dilution,
and, in some cases, chemical reactions and biological activity: however, in some cases, the
pollutants merely transform to soil contaminants. Groundwater that moves through cracks and
caverns is not filtered and can be transported as easily as surface water. In fact, this can be
aggravated by the human tendency to use natural sinkholes as dumps in areas of Karst
topography.

There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a
derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration
of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.

[edit] Measurement of water pollution

Environmental Scientists preparing water autosamplers.

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical,
chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical
tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature.
Government agencies and research organizations have published standardized, validated
analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results from disparate testing events.[18]

[edit] Sampling

Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods, depending
on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many contamination events
are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with rain events. For this reason
"grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying contaminant levels. Scientists gathering
this type of data often employ auto-sampler devices that pump increments of water at either time
or discharge intervals.

Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and/or animals from the surface
water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified for
biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be dissected for
bioassays to determine toxicity.

[edit] Physical testing

Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentration and turbidity.
[edit] Chemical testing

See also: water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many published
test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently-used methods
include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), nutrients
(nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and
mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides.

[edit] Biological testing

Main article: Bioindicator

Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal, and/or microbial indicators to monitor the
health of an aquatic ecosystem.

For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

[edit] Control of water pollution

[edit] Domestic sewage

Main article: Sewage treatment

Deer Island Waste Water Treatment Plant serving Boston, Massachusetts and vicinity.

Domestic sewage is 99.9% pure water, the other .1% are pollutants. While found in low
concentrations, these pollutants pose risk on a large scale.[19] In urban areas, domestic sewage is
typically treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. In the U.S., most of these plants are
operated by local government agencies, frequently referred to as publicly owned treatment works
(POTW). Municipal treatment plants are designed to control conventional pollutants: BOD and
suspended solids. Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., secondary treatment or better) can
remove 90 percent or more of these pollutants. Some plants have additional sub-systems to treat
nutrients and pathogens. Most municipal plants are not designed to treat toxic pollutants found in
industrial wastewater.[20]

Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or more
engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:
  utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve stormwater management capacity
throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant[21]
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment[14]
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).

A household or business not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an individual septic
tank, which treats the wastewater on site and discharges into the soil. Alternatively, domestic
wastewater may be sent to a nearby privately-owned treatment system (e.g. in a rural
community).

[edit] Industrial wastewater

Main article: Industrial wastewater treatment

Dissolved air flotation system for treating industrial wastewater.

Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal
facilities. Industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of conventional pollutants
(e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other
nonconventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these
facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the
partially-treated wastewater to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of
wastewater typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems.

Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or
eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention.

Heated water generated by power plants or manufacturing plants may be controlled with:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation,

convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation and/or
heat transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial
heating purposes.[22]

[edit] Agricultural wastewater

Main article: Agricultural wastewater treatment

Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa

Nonpoint source controls

Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in the
United States.[10] Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and retain soil on
their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing, crop mulching, crop rotation, planting
perennial crops and installing riparian buffers.[23][24]:pp. 4-95–4-96

Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as commercial fertilizer;
animal manure; or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater (effluent) or sludge. Nutrients
may also enter runoff from crop residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.
[24]:p. 2-9
Farmers can develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess
application of nutrients.[23][24]:pp. 4-37–4-38

To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques
(which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests, reduce reliance on
chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.[25]

Confined Animal Feeding Operation in the United States

Point source wastewater treatment

Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are called concentrated
animal feeding operations or confined animal feeding operations in the U.S. and are being
subject to increasing government regulation.[26][27] Animal slurries are usually treated by
containment in lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland. Constructed
wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes, as are anaerobic lagoons.
Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high temperature to
produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil improvement.

[edit] Construction site stormwater

Silt fence installed on a construction site.

Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:

 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.[28]

Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of:

 spill prevention and control plans, and

 specially-designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow
controls and diversion berms.[29]

[edit] Urban runoff (stormwater)

Main article: Urban runoff

Retention basin for controlling urban runoff

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well
as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management
techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management
practices (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on
improving water quality, and some perform both functions.[30]
Pollution prevention practices include low impact development techniques, installation of green
roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and
pesticides).[31] Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems,
constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.[32][33]

Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by stormwater management facilities that
absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration
basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be
heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.[30]:p. 5-58

See also: Green infrastructure

[edit] See also

Water portal

Sustainable development portal

Environment portal
 Aquatic toxicology
 Cultural eutrophication
 Interprovincial Cooperatives v. The Queen (Supreme Court of Canada)
 Marine debris
 Marine pollution
 Oil spills
 Paper pollution
 Peak water
 Trophic state index
 Watershed central

[edit] References
1. ^ Pink, Daniel H. (April 19, 2006). "Investing in Tomorrow's Liquid Gold". Yahoo.
http://finance.yahoo.com/columnist/article/trenddesk/3748.
2. ^ a b West, Larry (March 26, 2006). "World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide
Lack Safe Drinking Water". About.
http://environment.about.com/od/environmentalevents/a/waterdayqa.htm.
3. ^ "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India’s biggest
handicap". The Economist. 11 December 2008.
http://www.economist.com/specialreports/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12749787.
4. ^ "China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies".
Chinadaily.com.cn. 2005-06-07.
5. ^ "As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes". The New York Times. August
26, 2007.
6. ^ United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Washington, DC. "The
National Water Quality Inventory: Report to Congress for the 2002 Reporting Cycle – A
Profile." October 2007. Fact Sheet No. EPA 841-F-07-003.
7. ^ a b United States Geological Survey (USGS). Denver, CO. "Ground Water and Surface
Water: A Single Resource." USGS Circular 1139. 1998.
8. ^ Clean Water Act, section 502(14), 33 U.S.C. § 1362 (14).
9. ^ CWA section 402(p), 33 U.S.C. § 1342(p)
10. ^ a b EPA. "Protecting Water Quality from Agricultural Runoff." Fact Sheet No. EPA-
841-F-05-001. March 2005.
11. ^ USGS. Reston, VA. "A Primer on Water Quality." FS-027-01. March 2001.
12. ^ Schueler, Thomas R. "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, &
Pathways." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. 2000. Center for
Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
13. ^ EPA. “Illness Related to Sewage in Water.” Accessed 2009-02-20.
14. ^ a b EPA. "Report to Congress: Impacts and Control of CSOs and SSOs." August 2004.
Document No. EPA-833-R-04-001.
15. ^ a b c G. Allen Burton, Jr., Robert Pitt (2001). Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox
for Watershed Managers, Scientists, and Engineers. New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers.
ISBN 0-87371-924-7.
http://unix.eng.ua.edu/~rpitt/Publications/BooksandReports/Stormwater%20Effects
%20Handbook%20by%20%20Burton%20and%20Pitt%20book/MainEDFS_Book.html.
Chapter 2.
16. ^ Schueler, Thomas R. "Cars Are Leading Source of Metal Loads in California."
Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. 2000. Center for Watershed
Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
17. ^ Selna, Robert (2009). "Power plant has no plans to stop killing fish." San Francisco
Chronicle, January 2, 2009.
18. ^ For example, see Clescerl, Leonore S.(Editor), Greenberg, Arnold E.(Editor), Eaton,
Andrew D. (Editor). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
 (20th ed.) American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. ISBN 0-87553-235-7.
This publication is also available on CD-ROM and online by subscription.
19. ^ "Environmental works: types of sewage." Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. N.p., 2009.
Web. 9 Oct. 2009. <http://www.search.eb.com/eb/article-72342>
20. ^ EPA (2004)."Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems." Document No.
EPA 832-R-04-001.
21. ^ EPA. "Green Infrastructure Case Studies: Philadelphia." December 9, 2008.
22. ^ EPA (1997) Profile of the Fossil Fuel Electric Power Generation Industry . (Report).
Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 24
23. ^ a b U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Washington, DC. "National
Conservation Practice Standards." National Handbook of Conservation Practices.
Accessed 2009-03-28.
24. ^ a b c EPA. "National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from
Agriculture." July 2003. Document No. EPA-841-B-03-004.
25. ^ EPA. "Integrated Pest Management Principles." March 13, 2008.
26. ^ EPA. "Animal Feeding Operations." December 15, 2008.
27. ^ Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Des Moines, IA. "Animal Feeding Operations
in Iowa." Accessed 2009-03-05.
28. ^ Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Nashville, TN."Tennessee
Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook." 2002.
29. ^ EPA (2006). "Construction Site Stormwater Runoff Control." National Menu of
Stormwater Best Management Practices.
30. ^ a b EPA (1999)."Preliminary Data Summary of Urban Storm Water Best Management
Practices." Chapter 5. Document No. EPA-821-R-99-012.
31. ^ EPA. "Fact Sheet: Low Impact Development and Other Green Design Strategies."
October 9, 2008.
32. ^ California Stormwater Quality Association. Menlo Park, CA. "Stormwater Best
Management Practice (BMP) Handbooks." 2003.
33. ^ New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. Trenton, NJ. "New Jersey
Stormwater Best Management Practices Manual." April 2004.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Water pollution

Overview Information

 "Issues: Water" - Guides, news and reports from Natural Resources Defense Council (US
nonprofit organization)
 "Troubled Waters" - Video from "Strange Days on Planet Earth" by National Geographic
& PBS
 "Threatened Waters: Turning the Tide on Pesticide Contamination" - Report (2006) by
Beyond Pesticides (US nonprofit organization)
 Digital Water Education Library - Teaching resources for elementary & secondary
education, from Colorado State University

Analytical Tools and Other Specialized Resources

 Water pollution advice for businesses on NetRegs.gov.uk

 Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law - Peace Palace Library
(Netherlands)
 EUGRIS - Portal for Soil and Water Management in Europe
 Causal Analysis/Diagnosis Decision Information System (CADDIS) - US EPA guide for
identifying pollution problems (stressor identification)

Soil contamination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Excavation showing soil contamination at a disused gasworks.

Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural
soil environment. This type of contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground
storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of contaminated surface water to subsurface
strata, oil and fuel dumping, leaching of wastes from landfills or direct discharge of industrial
wastes to the soil. The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead and other heavy metals. This occurrence of this phenomenon is correlated with
the degree of industrializations and intensities of chemical usage.

The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with
the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water
supplies within and underlying the soil[1]. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting
cleanup are time consuming and expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology,
hydrology, chemistry and computer modeling skills.

It is in North America and Western Europe that the extent of contaminated land is most well
known, with many of countries in these areas having a legal framework to identify and deal with
this environmental problem; this however may well be just the tip of the iceberg with developing
countries very likely to be the next generation of new soil contamination cases.

The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has
exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution. The State Environmental Protection
Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable
agriculture. According to a scientific sampling,150 million mi (100,000 square kilometres) of
China’s cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a
further 32.5 million mi (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mi (1,300 square
kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of
China’s cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12
million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20
billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).[2].

The United States, while having some of the most widespread soil contamination, has actually
been a leader in defining and implementing standards for cleanup[3]. Other industrialized
countries have a large number of contaminated sites, but lag the U.S. in executing remediation.
Developing countries may be leading in the next generation of new soil contamination cases.

Each year in the U.S., thousands of sites complete soil contamination cleanup, some by using
microbes that “eat up” toxic chemicals in soil[4], many others by simple excavation and others by
more expensive high-tech soil vapor extraction or air stripping. Efforts proceed worldwide to
identify new sites of soil contamination.

Contents
[hide]
  1 Health effects
 2 Ecosystem effects
 3 Regulatory framework
o 3.1 United States of America

o 3.2 United Kingdom

 4 Cleanup options
 5 See also
 6 References

 7 External links

[edit] Health effects

This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (December 2009)

The major concern is that there are many sensitive land uses where people are in direct contact
with soils such as residences, parks, schools and playgrounds. Other contact mechanisms include
contamination of drinking water or inhalation of soil contaminants which have vaporized. There
is a very large set of health consequences from exposure to soil contamination depending on
pollutant type, pathway of attack and vulnerability of the exposed population. Chromium and
many of the pesticide and herbicide formulations are carcinogenic to all populations. Lead is
especially hazardous to young children, in which group there is a high risk of developmental
damage to the brain and nervous system, while to all populations kidney damage is a risk.

Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with higher

incidence of leukemia. Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of
kidney damage, some irreversible. PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity.
Organophosphates and carbamates can induce a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular
blockage. Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes and depression of the
central nervous system. There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache,
nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals. At sufficient
dosages a large number of soil contaminants cause death.

[edit] Ecosystem effects

Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for
ecosystems[5]. There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of
many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species. These changes
can manifest in the alteration of metabolism of endemic microorganisms and arthropods resident
in a given soil environment. The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food
chain, which in turn have major consequences for predator or consumer species. Even if the
chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may
ingest alien chemicals, which normally become more concentrated for each consuming rung of
the food chain. Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent
DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick
mortality and potential extinction of species.

Effects occur to agricultural lands which have certain types of soil contamination. Contaminants
typically alter plant metabolism, most commonly to reduce crop yields. This has a secondary
effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil mantle
from erosion phenomena. Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other
cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.

[edit] Regulatory framework

[edit] United States of America

Until about 1970 there was little widespread awareness of the worldwide scope of soil
contamination or its health risks. In fact, areas of concern were often viewed as unusual or
isolated incidents. Since then, the U.S. has established guidelines for handling hazardous waste
and the cleanup of soil pollution. In 1980 the U.S.Superfund/CERCLA established strict rules on
legal liability for soil contamination. Not only did CERCLA stimulate identification and cleanup
of thousands of sites, but it raised awareness of property buyers and sellers to make soil pollution
a focal issue of land use and management practices.

While estimates of remaining soil cleanup in the U.S. may exceed 200,000 sites, hundreds of
new sites are identified each year, and in other industrialized countries there is a lag of
identification and cleanup functions. Even though their use of chemicals is lower than
industrialized countries, often their controls and regulatory framework is quite weak. For
example, some persistent pesticides that have been banned in the U.S. are in widespread
uncontrolled use in developing countries. It is worth noting that the cost of cleaning up a soil
contaminated site can range from as little as about $10,000 for a small spill, which can be simply
excavated, to millions of dollars for a widespread event, especially for a chemical that is very
mobile such as perchloroethylene.

[edit] United Kingdom

Generic guidance commonly used in the UK are the Soil Guideline Values published by DEFRA
and the Environment Agency. These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal
acceptable level of a substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk
of harm to human health. These have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure
Assessment Model (CLEA UK). Certain input parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age
and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic output[citation needed].
Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land
(ICRCL) has been formally withdrawn by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs (DEFRA), for use as a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for
remediation or further assessment. Therefore, no further reference is made to these former
guideline values.

Other generic guidance that exists (to put the concentration of a particular contaminant in
context), includes the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (US PRGs),
the US EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (US EPA RBCs) and National Environment
Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels in Soil and Groundwater.

However international guidance should only be used in the UK with clear justification. This is
because foreign standards are usually particular to that country due to drivers such as political
policy, geology, flood regime and epidemiology. It is generally accepted by UK regulators that
only robust scientific methods that relate to the UK should be used.

The CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002 sets a
framework for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as
required by Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. As part of this framework,
generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be
used as “intervention values”[citation needed]. These values should not be considered as remedial
targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered.

Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses, namely

 residential (with and without plant uptake)

 allotments
 commercial/industrial

It is intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values. It should be noted that the CLEA
SGVs relate to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the
protection of ground workers during construction, or other potential receptors such as
groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable
to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route to contaminated
soils.

To date, the first ten of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following:
arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, inorganic mercury, nickel, selenium ethyl benzene, phenol
and toluene. Draft SGVs for benzene, naphthalene and xylene have been produced but their
publication is on hold. Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these
contaminants as well as for benzo[a]pyrene, benzene, dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs,
naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1
trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane, trichloroethene and
xylene. The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil organic matter
(SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content). As an
initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate.
[edit] Cleanup options

Microbes can be used in soil cleanup

Cleanup or remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of

soil chemicals and also apply computer models for analyzing transport[6] and fate of soil
chemicals. Thousands of soil contamination cases are currently in active cleanup across the U.S.
as of 2006. There are several principal strategies for remediation:

 Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or
sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay muds
containing toxins.
 Aeration of soils at the contaminated site (with attendant risk of creating air pollution)
 Thermal remediation by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently
high to volatize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapour extraction.
Technologies include ISTD, electrical resistance heating (ERH), and ET-DSPtm.
 Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals. Techniques
used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil
biota with commercially available microflora.
 Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system, with
subsequent stripping of the contaminants from the extract.
 Containment of the soil contaminants (such as by capping or paving over in place).
 Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals

[edit] See also

 Land degradation
 Land pollution
 List of waste management companies
 List of waste management topics
 List of solid waste treatment technologies
  List of Superfund sites in the United States
 Pesticide drift
 Pollution
 Contamination control
 Water contamination
 Water pollution
 Solidification / Stabilization (S/S) with Cement

[edit] References
1. ^ Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington
D.C. 20450
2. ^ Facing up to “invisible pollution”
3. ^ Rainer Stegmann, Treatment of Contaminated Soil: Fundamentals, Analysis,
Applications, Springer Verlag, Berlin 2001
4. ^ D.A. Crossley, Roles of Microflora and fauna in soil systems, International Symposium
on Pesticides in Soils, Feb. 25, 1970, University of Michigan
5. ^ Michael Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw and Harry Seidman Computer modelng
of pesticide transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, prepared for the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc.,
Sunnyvale, California (1973)
6. ^ S.K. Gupta, C.T. Kincaid, P.R. Mayer, C.A. Newbill and C.R. Cole, ‘’A
multidimensional finite element code for the analysis of coupled fluid, energy and solute
transport’‘, Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratory PNL-2939, EPA contract 68-03-3116
(1982)

[edit] External links

 Environmental Protection Agency link to health effects of specific pollutants cited in this
article
 Portal for soil and water management in Europe Independent information gateway
originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and water,
including contaminated land, soil and water management.
 Sound blaster cleans contaminated soil - High powered ultrasound can clean up soil
tainted with organic toxins like PCBs or DDT
 Article on soil contamination in China
 [hide]
v • d • e
Pollution

Acid rain · Air Quality Index · Atmospheric dispersion modeling ·

Air pollution Chlorofluorocarbon · Global dimming · Global distillation · Global warming ·
Indoor air quality · Ozone depletion · Particulate · Smog

Eutrophication · Hypoxia · Environmental monitoring · Freshwater

environmental quality parameters · Marine pollution · Marine debris · Ocean
Water
acidification · Oil spill · Pharmaceuticals and personal care products · Ship
pollution
pollution · Surface runoff · Thermal pollution · Urban runoff · Wastewater ·
Waterborne diseases · Water quality · Water stagnation

Soil Bioremediation · Electrical resistance heating · Herbicide · Pesticide · Soil

contamination Guideline Values (SGVs)

Actinides in the environment · Environmental radioactivity · Fission product ·

Radioactive
Nuclear fallout · Plutonium in the environment · Radiation poisoning · Radium
contamination
in the environment · Uranium in the environment

Other types of Invasive species · Light pollution · Noise pollution · Radio spectrum pollution ·
pollution Visual pollution

Inter-
Montreal Protocol · Kyoto Protocol · CLRTAP · OSPAR · Stockholm
government
Convention
treaties

Major DEFRA · Environment Agency (England and Wales) · U.S. EPA · EEA ·
organizations Greenpeace
Noise pollution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

A Boeing 747-400 passes close to houses shortly before landing at London Heathrow Airport

Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human-, animal- or machine-created

sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life. The word noise comes from
the Latin word nausea meaning seasickness.

The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is transportation systems, including motor vehicle
noise, aircraft noise and rail noise.[1][2] Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since
side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential
area.

Other sources of indoor and outdoor noise pollution are car alarms, emergency service sirens,
office equipment, factory machinery, construction work, groundskeeping equipment, barking
dogs, appliances, power tools, lighting hum, audio entertainment systems, loudspeakers, and noisy
people.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Human health effects
 2 Environmental effects
 3 Impact of noise pollution in the UK
 4 Mitigation and control of noise
 5 Legal status
  6 See also
 7 References

 8 External links

[edit] Human health effects

Main article: Noise health effects

Noise health effects are both health and behavioural in nature. The unwanted sound is called
noise. This unwanted sound can damage physiological and psychological health. Noise pollution
can cause annoyance and aggression, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep
disturbances, and other harmful effects.[3][4][5][6] Furthermore, stress and hypertension are the
leading causes to health problems, whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression
and at times panic attacks.[4][7]

Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males exposed to
significant occupational noise demonstrate significantly reduced hearing sensitivity than their
non-exposed peers, though differences in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two
groups are indistinguishable by age 79.[8] A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who were
insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed
that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to hearing
loss.[3]

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to moderately high levels
during a single eight hour period causes a statistical rise in blood pressure of five to ten points
and an increase in stress[3] and vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted
above as well as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease.

Noise pollution is also a cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found that in
urban areas households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel per year for
noise reduction.[9]

[edit] Environmental effects

Noise can have a detrimental effect on animals by causing stress, increasing risk of death by
changing the delicate balance in predator/prey detection and avoidance, and by interfering with
their use of sounds in communication especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation.
Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing.[10]

An impact of noise on animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may cause,
which in the case of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. Noise pollution
has caused the death of certain species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to
the loud sound of military sonar.[11]
Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called Lombard vocal response.[12]
Scientists and researchers have conducted experiments that show whales' song length is longer
when submarine-detectors are on.[13] If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice will be
masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or
preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other
species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.

European Robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with
high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is
quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly[14]. Interestingly,
the same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than
night-time Light pollution, to which the phenomenon is often attributed.

Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could
alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally
devoted to other activities and thus lead to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.[15]

[edit] Impact of noise pollution in the UK

Figures compiled by Rockwool, the mineral wool insulation manufacturer, based on responses
from local authorities to a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request reveal in the period April
2008 - 2009 UK councils received 315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private
residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across the UK serving 8,069 noise
abatement notices, or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour (Scotland) Act. In
the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment have been authorised involving the removal
of powerful speakers, stereos and televisions. Westminster City Council has received more
complaints per head of population than any other district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about
noise, which equates to 42.32 complaints per thousand residents. Eight of the top 10 councils
ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London[16]

[edit] Mitigation and control of noise

Main article: Noise mitigation

The sound tube in Melbourne, Australia, designed to reduce roadway noise without detracting
from the area's aesthetics.

Technology to mitigate or remove noise can be applied as follows:

There are a variety of strategies for mitigating roadway noise including: use of noise barriers,
limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles,
use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and acceleration, and tire
design. An important factor in applying these strategies is a computer model for roadway noise,
that is capable of addressing local topography, meteorology, traffic operations and hypothetical
mitigation. Costs of building-in mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in
the planning stage of a roadway project.

Aircraft noise can be reduced to some extent by design of quieter jet engines, which was pursued
vigorously in the 1970s and 1980s. This strategy has brought limited but noticeable reduction of
urban sound levels. Reconsideration of operations, such as altering flight paths and time of day
runway use, has demonstrated benefits for residential populations near airports. FAA sponsored
residential retrofit (insulation) programs initiated in the 1970s has also enjoyed success in
reducing interior residential noise in thousands of residences across the United States.

Exposure of workers to Industrial noise has been addressed since the 1930s. Changes include
redesign of industrial equipment, shock mounting assemblies and physical barriers in the
workplace.

Noise Free America, a national anti-noise pollution organization, regularly lobbies for the
enforcement of noise ordinances at all levels of government. [17]

[edit] Legal status

Main article: Noise regulation

Governments up until the 1970s viewed noise as a "nuisance" rather than an environmental
problem. In the United States there are federal standards for highway and aircraft noise; states
and local governments typically have very specific statutes on building codes, urban planning
and roadway development. In Canada and the EU there are few national, provincial, or state laws
that protect against noise.

Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among municipalities and indeed do not even exist in
some cities. An ordinance may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a
nuisance, or it may set out specific guidelines for the level of noise allowable at certain times of
the day and for certain activities.

Dr. Paul Herman wrote the first comprehensive noise codes in 1975 for Portland, Oregon with
funding from the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and HUD (Housing and Urban
Development). The Portland Noise Code became the basis for most other ordinances for major
U.S. and Canadian metropolitan regions.[18]

Most city ordinances prohibit sound above a threshold intensity from trespassing over property
line at night, typically between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m., and during the day restricts it to a higher
sound level; however, enforcement is uneven.[citation needed] Many municipalities do not follow up on
complaints. Even where a municipality has an enforcement office, it may only be willing to issue
warnings, since taking offenders to court is expensive.

The notable exception to this rule is the City of Portland Oregon which has instituted an
aggressive protection for its citizens with fines reaching as high at $5000 per infraction, with the
ability to cite a responsible noise violator multiple times in a single day.

Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation between the emitter and the
receiver. Escalation procedures vary by country, and may include action in conjunction with
local authorities, in particular the police. Noise pollution often persists because only five to ten
percent of people affected by noise will lodge a formal complaint. Many people are not aware of
their legal right to quiet and do not know how to register a complaint.

[edit] See also

 Acoustic ecology
 Light pollution
 List of environmental health hazards
 Lombard effect
 Marine mammals and sonar
 Noise (acoustic)
 Noise Free America
 Soundscape
 The Hum
 Tranquility

[edit] References
1. ^ Senate Public Works Committee, Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972, S. Rep.
No. 1160, 92nd Cong. 2nd session
2. ^ C. Michael Hogan and Gary L. Latshaw, The relationship between highway planning
and urision specialty conference, May 21-23, 1973, Chicago, Illinois. by American
Society of Civil Engineers. Urban Transportation Division
3. ^ a b c S. Rosen and P. Olin, Hearing Loss and Coronary Heart Disease, Archives of
Otolaryngology, 82:236 (1965)
4. ^ a b J.M. Field, Effect of personal and situational variables upon noise annoyance in
residential areas, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 93: 2753-2763 (1993)
 5. ^ "Noise Pollution". World Health Organisation. http://www.euro.who.int/Noise.
6. ^ "Road noise link to blood pressure". BBC News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8247217.stm.
7. ^ Karl D. Kryter, The Effects of Noise on Man , Academic Press (1985)
8. ^ Rosenhall U, Pedersen K, Svanborg A (1990). "Presbycusis and noise-induced hearing
loss". Ear Hear 11 (4): 257–63. doi:10.1097/00003446-199008000-00002. PMID
2210099.
9. ^ Jesús Barreiro, Mercedes Sánchez, Montserrat Viladrich-Grau (2005), "How much are
people willing to pay for silence? A contingent valuation study", Applied Economics, 37
(11)
10. ^ Effects of Anthropogenic Noise in the Marine Environment
11. ^ Bahamas Marine Mammal Stranding Event of 15-16 March 2000
12. ^ www.dosits.org/glossary/pop/lvr.htm
13. ^ Variation in humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-
frequency sound broadcasts
14. ^ Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ (2007). "Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in
urban robins.". Biology Letters 3: 368–70. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134.
15. ^ Milius, S. (2007). High Volume, Low Fidelity: Birds are less faithful as sounds blare,
Science News vol. 172, p. 116. (references)
16. ^ "London is home to the noisiest neighbours". London Evening Standard.
http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/standard/article-23714071-
details/London+is+home+to+the+noisiest+neighbours/article.do.
17. ^ http://www.noisefree.org
18. ^ City of Portland, Oregon. Auditor's Office. Chapter 18.02 Title Noise Control.
Retrieved on April 20, 2009.

[edit] External links

 Noise pollution at the Open Directory Project
 World Health Organisation - Guidelines for Community Noise
 Clive Thompson on How Man-Made Noise May Be Altering Earths Ecology {sic}
 EEA draws the first map of Europe's noise exposure - All press releases — EEA