Chemical Bonds and

Mixtures
Electron-Dot Structures

 Atoms bond together through their electrons. To learn about bonding, therefore,
we need to know something about how the electrons in an atom are organized.
 Electrons behave as though they are contained within seven concentric shells.
Electron-Dot Structures

 The numbers indicate the maximum number of electrons each shell may contain.

Note:
 This is a "conceptual model"
and not a representation of
what an atom "looks like."

 Rather, it helps us to
understand how the
electrons in atoms behave.
Electron-Dot Structures

 The shells are more easily drawn in two

dimensions.

 Each atom has its own configuration of

electrons. Elements in the same group
have similar configurations, which is why
they have similar properties.
Electron-Dot Structures

 Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost shell of an atom. These are the
ones that can participate in chemical bonding.
 An electron-dot structure is a notation that shows the valence electrons
surrounding the atomic symbol.
Electron-Dot Structures

 Special Note
 For heavier atoms, some valence electrons are more available than others. Krypton, for
example, has 18 valence electrons, but only eight of these are typically shown in an
electron-dot structure. These are the eight that extend farthest away from the nucleus.
Electron-Dot Structures

Note that elements in the same group have the same electron-
dot structure.
Question?

 Sodium, Na, atomic number 11, has only one valence electron. Upon losing this
electron, what other atom in the periodic table does the sodium resemble?

A. neon, Ne, atomic number 10

B. magnesium, Mg, atomic number 12
C. lithium, Li, atomic number 3
D. Sodium can resemble only sodium.
Question?

 Sodium, Na, atomic number 11, has only one valence electron. Upon losing this
electron, what other atom in the periodic table does the sodium resemble?

A. neon, Ne, atomic number 10

B. magnesium, Mg, atomic number 12
C. lithium, Li, atomic number 3
D. Sodium can resemble only sodium.
Explanation:
With 10 electrons, the sodium has enough electrons to fill the first and second shells,
just like neon, Ne.
The Formation of Ions
 An ion is an atom that has lost or gained one or more electrons.
The Formation of Ions
The Formation of Ions
The Formation of Ions
H H
+
O H+ O
H H H

Water Hydrogen ion Hydronium ion, H3O+

 A molecular ion is typically formed by the loss or gain of a hydrogen ion, H +.

Ionic Bonds

 An ionic bond is the electrical force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic Bonds

 Shape of the compound depends on the shape of the microscopic structure.

Question?

 What is the chemical formula for a compound made of aluminum ions, Al3+, and
oxygen ions, O2–?

A. AlO
B. Al3O2
C. Al2O3
D. Al6O6
Question?

 What is the chemical formula for a compound made of aluminum ions, Al3+, and
oxygen ions, O2–?

A. AlO
B. Al3O2
C. Al2O3
D. Al6O6
Question?

 What is the chemical formula for a compound made of magnesium ions, Mg 2+,
and oxygen ions, O2–?

A. MgO
B. Mg2O2
C. Mg4O4
D. any of the above
Question?

 What is the chemical formula for a compound made of magnesium ions, Mg 2+, and
oxygen ions, O2–?

A. MgO
B. Mg2O2
C. Mg4O4
D. any of the above
Explanation:
The chemical formula is used to show the ratio in which atoms combine. By convention,
the lowest numbers are preferred, so 1:1 is used rather than 2:2. The numeral 1, however, is
implied when no subscript is written.
Metallic Bonds
 Outer electrons in metal atoms are held only weakly by the nucleus.
 This weak attraction allows the electrons to move about quite freely.
 This mobility of electrons accounts for many metallic properties: Conductivity of
heat and electricity, shiny colour, and its ability to be molded easly.
Metallic Bonds

 An alloy is a mixture of metallic elements.

Covalent Bonds

 A covalent bond is the type of electrical attraction in which atoms are held
together by their mutual attraction for shared electrons.
Covalent Bonds

 There are two electrons in a single covalent bond.

 The covalent bond is represented using a straight line.
Covalent Bonds

 The number of covalent bonds an atom can form equals its number of unpaired
valence electrons.
Covalent Bonds
Covalent Bonds

 Multiple covalent bonds are possible.

Polar Covalent Bonds

 Electrons in a covalent bond are shared evenly when the two atoms are the same.
Polar Covalent Bonds

 Electrons in a covalent bond may be shared unevenly, however, when the bonded
atoms are different.
Polar Covalent Bonds

 Electronegativity is the ability of a bonded atom to pull on shared electrons.

Greater electronegativity means greater "pulling power."

High

Low
Polar Covalent Bonds

The ionic bond and the nonpolar covalent bond represent to extremes of chemical bonding.
Question?

 Which is heavier: carbon dioxide, CO2, or water, H2O?

A. Carbon dioxide is heavier.

B. Water is heavier.
C. Both have the same number of atoms, so they weigh the same.
D. It depends on other factors.
Question?

 Which is heavier: carbon dioxide, CO2, or water, H2O?

A. Carbon dioxide is heavier.

B. Water is heavier.
C. Both have the same number of atoms, so they weigh the same.
D. It depends on other factors.
Explanation:
Look to the periodic table and add up the masses of the atoms in each of these substances.
Carbon dioxide adds up to 44 amu, while water is only 18 amu. So, carbon dioxide is more
than twice as heavy. At room temperature, carbon dioxide is a gas because it is nonpolar.
Molecular Polarity

 If the polar bonds in a molecule are facing in equal and opposite directions, the
polarity may cancel out.
Molecular Polarity

…Or not!
Molecular Polarity
Question?

 Water has such a relatively high boiling point because water

A. is such a heavy substance.

B. is transparent so that heat passes right through it.
C. contains three atoms per molecule.
D. molecules are so sticky.
Question?

 Water has such a relatively high boiling point because water

A. is such a heavy substance.

B. is transparent so that heat passes right through it.
C. contains three atoms per molecule.
D. molecules are so sticky.
Explanation:
The slightly negative end of one water molecule holds onto the slightly positive end
of another water molecule. This force of attraction must be overcome before the
liquid water can transform into the gaseous phase.
Molecular Polarity
Molecular Attractions

All are weaker

than chemical
bonds
Molecular Attractions

 An ion dipole attraction is the attraction between an ion and a dipole.

 Example: NaCl in water
Molecular Attractions

 An ion dipole attraction is the attraction between an ion and a dipole.

 Example: NaCl in water
Molecular Attractions

 An dipole-dipole attraction is the attraction between two dipoles.

 Example: cohesive forces within water
Molecular Attractions

A dipole–induced dipole attraction is the attraction between a

dipole and an induced dipole.
Question?

 Is it possible for a fish to drown?

A. no, because fish breathe water

B. yes, when the water contains too little oxygen
C. no, because water is 88.8% oxygen by mass
D. yes, when the water is not moving
Question?

 Is it possible for a fish to drown?

A. no, because fish breathe water

B. yes, when the water contains too little oxygen
C. no, because water is 88.8% oxygen by mass
D. yes, when the water is not moving
Explanation:
Fish don't breathe water. Their gills extract the small amounts of dissolved oxygen,
O2, that can be found even in water that remains still.
Question?

 A nonpolar material, such as oxygen, O2, is soluble in a polar material, such as

water, H2O, by way of

A. ion–dipole attractions.
B. dipole–dipole attractions.
C. dipole–induced dipole attractions.
D. all of the above
Question?

 A nonpolar material, such as oxygen, O2, is soluble in a polar material, such as

water, H2O, by way of

A. ion–dipole attractions.
B. dipole–dipole attractions.
C. dipole–induced dipole attractions.
D. all of the above
Explanation:
This is a relatively weak force of attraction, which explains why not much oxygen
dissolves in the water. There is enough, however, to allow fish to live.
Molecular Attractions

 A fourth molecular attraction is the induced dipole–induced dipole, which occurs

between nonpolar molecules.
Molecular Attractions

Plastic Wrap sticks to

glass thanks to dipole-
induced dipole
attraction!
Molecular Attractions

Nonpolar atoms are attracted to each other by these

"momentary" dipoles.
Molecular Attractions

The larger the atom, the stronger the "momentary" dipole.

Molecular Attractions

The tiny nonpolar fluorine atoms in Teflon provide very weak

attractions, which is why Teflon provides a "nonstick" surface.
Molecular Attractions

So, how do the gecko's sticky feet stay so clean?

Question?

 Which type of molecular attraction takes the least amount of energy to break
apart?

A. ion–dipole attractions
B. dipole–dipole attractions
C. dipole–induced dipole attractions
D. induced dipole–induced dipole attractions
Question?

 Which type of molecular attraction takes the least amount of energy to break apart?

A. ion–dipole attractions
B. dipole–dipole attractions
C. dipole–induced dipole attractions
D. induced dipole–induced dipole attractions
Explanation:
The induced dipole–induced dipole attraction is the weakest of the four, but only on a molecule-to-
molecule basis.

Remember, each hook on a strip of Velcro may be weak, but all the tiny hooks working together can
provide significant holding power.
Most Materials Are Mixtures

 A pure substance is a material that consists of only one type of element or

compound.

 A mixture is a collection of two or more pure substances.

 It can be separated by physical means.
Most Materials Are Mixtures
The Chemist's Classification of Matter
The Chemist's Classification of Matter

 Pure materials consist of a single element or compound.

 Impure materials consist of two or more elements or compounds.
 Mixtures may be heterogeneous or homogeneous.
The Chemist's Classification of Matter

 In heterogeneous mixtures, the different components can be seen as individual

substances.
 In homogeneous mixtures, the composition is the same throughout.
The Chemist's Classification of Matter
The Chemist's Classification of Matter

 Homogeneous mixtures:
 Solution: all components in the same phase
 Suspension: different components in different phases
Question?

Is the air in your house a homogeneous or a heterogeneous mixture?

A. homogeneous, because it is mixed very well

B. heterogeneous, because of the dust particles it contains
C. homogeneous, because it is all at the same temperature
D. heterogeneous, because it consists of different types of molecules
Question?

Is the air in your house a homogeneous or a heterogeneous mixture?

A. homogeneous, because it is mixed very well

B. heterogeneous, because of the dust particles it contains
C. homogeneous, because it is all at the same temperature
D. heterogeneous, because it consists of different types of molecules
Solutions

 A solution is a homogenous mixture consisting of ions or molecules.

 A solvent is the major component of a solution.
 A solute is the minor component of a solution.
 If a solution is saturated, then no more solute will dissolve in it.
Solutions

 Concentration is a measure of the amount of solute dissolved in solution.

Amount of solute
Concentration =
Amount of solution
 A solution with more solute than solution is called concentrated.
 A solution with more solution than solute is called dilute.
Solutions

 A mole is a super-large number, 6.02  1023, used to measure numbers of atoms or

molecules, also called Avogadro's number.

The formula mass of a Carbon, C 12

substance expressed in Oxygen, O2 32
grams contains 1 mole.
Carbon dioxide, CO2 44
Sucrose, C12H22O11 342
Solutions

Sucrose, C12H22O11 = 342 g/mole

Question?

 Water, H2O, has a formula mass of 18. How many moles of water are there in 18
grams of water?

A. 0.5 mole
B. 1 mole
C. 9 moles
D. 18 moles
Question?

 Water, H2O, has a formula mass of 18. How many moles of water are there in 18
grams of water?

A. 0.5 mole
B. 1 mole
C. 9 moles
D. 18 moles
Question?

 How many grams of water, H2O, are there in 2 moles of water?

A. 1 gram
B. 9 grams
C. 18 grams
D. 36 grams
Question?

 How many grams of water, H2O, are there in 2 moles of water?

A. 1 gram
B. 9 grams
C. 18 grams
D. 36 grams
Solutions

 Molarity is a unit of concentration expressed in moles of solute per liter of

solution.

moles of Solute
Molarity =
liter of Solution
Solutions

 ppm is a unit of concentration expressed in milligrams of solute in per liters of

solution.

1 part solute 1 milligram solute

1 ppm = =
1,000,000 parts solution 1 liter solution
Solubility

 Solubility is the ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent.

 A solute that has appreciable solubility is said to be soluble.
Solubility
 A precipitate is solute that comes out of solution.
Question?

 Why there is Calcium Carbonate on the bottom of the kettle?

Question?

The amount of oxygen, O2, dissolved in the waters of the Arctic Ocean is –––––––– the
amount of oxygen dissolved in warm tropical waters.

A. greater than
B. about equal to
C. less than
D. It depends on other factors.
Question?

The amount of oxygen, O2, dissolved in the waters of the Arctic Ocean is –––––––– the
amount of oxygen dissolved in warm tropical waters.

A. greater than
B. about equal to
C. less than
D. It depends on other factors.
Explanation:
The solubility of oxygen in water decreases with increasing temperature. As a
consequence, cold polar oceans tend to be more fertile than warmer tropical waters.
Solubility
Question?

By mass, water is 88.88% oxygen. So, why can't we breathe water?

Hint: What is the elemental formula for the oxygen we breathe and the chemical
formula for water?