METABOLISM OF

CARBOHYDRATES

DOC
NICE
 CARBOHYDRATES
⮚Carbohydrates are essentially hydrates of carbon
(i.e. they are composed of carbon and water and
have a composition of (CH2O)n.
⮚Major energy source of human being.
⮚Most abundant bio-organic molecules in the planet.
 GLUCOSE
⮚ The focal point of
carbohydrate
metabolism.

⮚ Commonly called
blood sugar, it is
supplied to the body
via the circulatory
system. Structural Formula of
-D Glucose
 DIGESTION and ABSORPTION
DIGESTION
⮚ the biochemical process by which food molecules,
through hydrolysis, are broken down into simpler
chemical units that can be used by cells for their
metabolic needs.

⮚ It is the first stage in the processing of food products.

 DIGESTION in the Mouth
⮚Salivary α- amylase- a constituent of saliva,
the fluid secreted by the salivary glands. It
catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch to maltose.

⮚It is composed of 99% water plus small

amount of several inorganic ions and organic
molecules.
 DIGESTION IN THE SMALL
INTESTINE
⮚ The major digestion of carbohydrates takes place in the
small intestine through the action of enzymes in
pancreatic and intestinal juices.
⮚ The pancreatic amylase catalyzes the hydrolysis of starch
and dextrin into maltose.
⮚ The maltose is hydrolyzed to glucose through the
activity of enzyme maltase from the intestinal mucosal
cells that also contain sucrose and lactase which catalyze
the hydrolysis of sucrose and lactose respectively.
DIGESTION
 SUMMARY OF CARBOHYDRATE
DIGESTION IN THE HUMAN BODY
 GLYCOLYSIS
⮚ Is the metabolic pathway by which glucose
(a-C6 molecule) is converted into two molecules of
pyruvate (a-C3 molecule), chemical energy in the form
of ATP is produced, and NADH- reduced coenzymes are
produced.

⮚ Coenzyme NAD+ serves as the oxidizing agent.

 PROCESS OF GLYCOLYSIS
Glycolysis is an anaerobic pathway in which molecular
oxygen is not a participant.

Two (2) Stages of Glycolysis:

1. Six carbon stage (steps 1-3)

-energy consuming stage
2. Three carbon stage (steps 4-10)
- energy generation stage
Six- Carbon Stage of Glycolysis
Step 1- Phosphorylation: Formation of Glucose 6 phosphate.
*hexokinase

Step 2- Isomerization: Formation of fructose 6 phosphate.

*phosphoglucoisomerase

Step 3- Phosphorylation: Formation of fructose 1,6- biophospahte

*phosphofructokinase

(*) indicates enzyme that catalyzes the reaction.

Three Carbon Stage of Glycolysis

Step 4- Cleavage: Formation of Two Triose Phosphate

*aldolase enzyme

Step 5- Isomerization: Formation of glyceraldehyde 3-

phosphate
*triosephosphate isomerase

Step 6- Oxidation and Phosphorylation: Formation of 1,3-

bisphosphoglycerate
*glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
Step 7- Phosphorylation of ADP: Formation of 3-phosphoglycerate
*phosphoglycerokinase

Step 8- Isomerization: Formation of 2-phosphoglycerate

*phosphoglyceromutase

Step 9- Dehydration: Formation of phosphoenolpyruvate

*enolase

Step 10- Phosphorylation of ADP: Formation of pyruvate

*pyruvate kinase

(*) indicates enzyme that catalyzes the reaction.

 NOTE:
ATP molecules are involved in steps
1,3,7 and 10 of glycolysis.

STEPS 1, 3 and 10 are the control

points in glycolysis.
 Entry points of Fructose and Galactose into the Glycolysis

GALACTOSE GALACTOSE
1- phosphate

ATP ADP

FRUCTOSE FRUCTOSE
1-phosphate

ATP ADP

NOTE:
NOTE:
Dihydroxyacetone
Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate
Phosphate +
+ Glyceraldehyde
Glyceraldehyde
=
= two
two glyceraldehyde
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
3-phosphate
FATES OF PYRUVATE
OXIDATION of Acetyl CoA
⮚ Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is oxizided to acetyl
CoA. Pyruvate formed in the cytosol through glycolysis
process two mitochondrial membranes and enters the
mitochondrial matrix, where the oxidation takes place.

⮚ Involves four (4) separate steps and requires NAD+,

CoA– SH, FAD and 2 other conenzymes (lipoic acide,
thiamine pyrophospahte)
 FERMENTATION PROCESS

Fermentation
⮚ s a biochemical process by which the NADH is oxidized
to NAD+ without the need for oxygen.

Note: There are two fermentation process:

a. lactate b. ethanol
 LACTATE FERMENTATION
⮚ The enzymatic anaerobic reduction of pyruvate to lactate.
⮚ The sole purpose of this process is the conversion of
NADH to NAD+.

FACT: Red blood cells have no mitochondria and therefore

always produce lactate as the end product of glycolysis.
 ETHANOL FERMENTATION
⮚ The enzymatic anaerobic conversion
of pyruvate to ethanol and CO2.

⮚ Ethanol fermentation involving yeast

causes bread and related products to
rise as a result of CO2 bubbles being
released during baking; beer, wine
and other alcoholic drinks are also
produced by ethanol fermentation of
the sugars in grain and fruit products.
 ATP Production for the complete
oxidation of Glucose

The final number of produced ATP is 30, 26 of which came

from the oxidative phosphorylation associated with the ETC.

This total of 30 atp for complete oxidation contrasts markedly

with a total of 2 ATP for oxidation of glucose to lacte and
another 2 ATP for oxidation of glucose to ethanol.

GLUCOSE+6O2+30ADP+30 Pi🡪 6CO2 + 6h20+30 ATP

 GLYCOGEN Synthesis and Degradation

GLYCOGEN
� A branch polymeric form of glucose; it is the storage form
of carbohydrates in humans and animals.
� Found primarily in muscles and liver tissues.
� In Muscles, the glucose needed for glycolysis.
� In Liver, the source of glucose to maintain normal glucose
levels in blood.
 Glycogenesis
⮚ Is the metabolic pathway by which glycogen is synthesized from
glucose 6-phosphate.

It involves 3 Reactions/Steps:

Step1: Formation of Glucose 1-phosphate

*phosphoglucomutase

Step 2: Formation of UDP- Glucose

*activator- Uridine Triphosphate (UTP)

Step 3: Glucose Transfer to a glycogen chain

 Glycogenolysis
Is the metabolic pathway by which glucose 6-phosphate is
produced from glycogen.

It is a two steps process

Step1- Phosphorylation of Glucose residue

*glycogenphosphorelase

Step2- Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization

*phosphoglucomutase
 Phosphorylase
An enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of a
bond by Pi ( in contrast to hydrolysis,
which refers to bond cleavage by
H20),such as removal of a glucose unit
form glycogen to give glucose 1-
phosphate.
 Phosphatase

Is an enzyme that effects the removal of

a phosphate group (Pi) from a
molecule, such as converting glucose
6-phosphate to glucose, with H20 as
the attacking species.
 FACT:
⮚Glycogen synthesis (Glycogenesis) and
Glycogen Degradation (Glycogenolysis) are not
totally reversed processes has significance. In
fact, it is almost always the case in biochemistry
that “opposite” biosynthetic and degradative
pathways differ in some steps. This allows for
separate control of the pathways.
 Gluconeogenesis
⮚ Is the metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesize from
non-carbohydrate materials.

⮚ Non-carbohydrates starting materials for gluconeogenesis are

lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids.

⮚ 90% takes place at the liver and it helps maintain normal blood
glucose levels in times of inadequate dietary carbohydrate intake.
FACT: Glycogen stored in muscle
and liver tissue are depleted within
12-18 hours from fasting or even
less time from heavy works or
strenuous exercise.
FACT: without gluconeogenesis, the
brain which is dependent on glucose as
a fuel, would have problems
functioning if food intake were
restricted for even one day.
 GLYCOGEN

GLYCOGENOLYSIS
GLYCOGENESIS

GLUCOSE
GLUCOSE GLUCOSE GLUCOSE
6-PHOSPHATE 6-PHOSPHATE

GLYCOLYSIS GLUCONEOGENESIS
PYRUVATE

LACTATE ACETYL CoA ETHANOL

The relationship among four common metabolic pathways that involve glucose.
Terminology for Glucose Metabolic
Pathways

⮚ We should not be confused with Glycolysis,

Glyconegenesis, Glycogenolysis and Gluconeoenesis
because of their like-sounding names.
⮚ Take note that:
- Lysis means “breakdown”
- genesis means “making”
 CORI Cycle
⮚ Is a cyclic biochemical process in which glucose is
converted to lactate in muscle tissue, the lactate is
reconverted to glucose in the liver and the glucose is
returned to the tissue.

⮚ It is named in honor of Gerty Radnitz Cori and Carl

Cori, the husband and wife team who discovered the
cycle.
Pentose Phosphate Process
⮚Is a metabolic pathway by which glucose
is used to produce NADPH, ribose 5-
phosphate, and numerous other sugar
phosphates.
Hormonal Control of Carbohydrates
⮚ A second major method for regulating carbohydrates
metabolism, besides enzyme inhibition by metabolites, is
hormonal control.
⮚ There three hormones the affects carbohydrates
metabolism.
1. Insulin
2. Glucagon
3. Epinephrine
 Insulin
⮚ Is a hormone produced
by the beta cells of the
pancreas.
⮚ Its function is to lower
blood glucose levels.
⮚ Also involve in Lipid
Metabolism.
⮚ Released when blood-
glucose levels are high.
 Glucagon
⮚ Is a polypeptide hormone
(29 amino acids) produced
in the pancreas by the alpha
cells.
⮚ Principal function is to
increase blood glucose
concentration by speeding
up glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis in the
liver.
⮚ Released when blood
glucose levels are low.
 Epinephrine
⮚ also called adrenaline,
released by the adrenal
glands in response to anger,
fear or excitement.
⮚ It has similar function to
glucagon.
⮚ Primary target of this
hormone are the muscle cells
where energy is needed for
quick action. It also function
in Lipid Metabolism.
 Connecting to Chemistry
LACTATE ACCUMULATION

During strenous exercise, conditions in muscle cells can change from

aerobic to anaerobic as the oxygen supply becomes inadequate to
meet demand. Such conditions causes pyruvate to be converted to
lactate rather than acetyl CoA. The resulting lactate begins to
accumulate in the cytosol of cells where it is produced. As a result,
muscle cramps, stiffness of the muscles and sores are likely to occur
in the muscle tissues.
 CARDIAC ARREST

⮚Lactate accumulation is the cause of

muscle can also occur in the heart muscle
if it experiences decreased oxygen
supply. The heart muscle experiences
cramps and stops beating that leads
(cardiac arrest).
 EFEECTS ON ATHLETES
⮚ Athletes can function longer than non-athletes under
aerobic conditions without lactate production.
⮚ Hyperventilation raises slightly the pH of blood. The
CO2 loss associated with the rapid breathing causes
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
⮚ A decreased amount of carbonic acid causes blood ph
to rise, which makes the blood slightly more basic.
 Diabetes Mellitus
⮚ It is the best-known and most prevalent metabolic disease in humans
affecting approximately 4% of the population. There are two major
forms of this disease: insulin-dependent (Type 1) and non-insulin
dependent (Type 2) diabetes.

⮚ Type 1 often appears in children while Type 2 usually occurs in

overweight individuals more than 40 years old.

FACT: Insulin was the first human body hormone discovered in 1921.
 FACT:
⮚About 10% of all cases of diabetes are type I. The
more common non-insulin-dependent type II
diabetes occurs in the other 90% cases. The
effects of both types of diabetes are the same–
inadequate glucose uptake by cells and resulted to
hyperglycemia.
⮚Insulin medication can be in the form of inhaler,
powder, liquid or injections.