The Chemistry of Life: Lecture Presentation by Wendy Kuntz, Kapi'olani Community College

Chapter
2
The Chemistry
of Life
Lecture Presentation
by Wendy Kuntz,
Kapi'olani Community College
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.
Why do we study chemistry in a
biology class?
All living matter is made up of chemicals

The most simple of these chemicals is called
an atom
In order for there to be life, these chemicals
must change – Chemical Reactions
In order to understand chemical reactions, we
must first study the smallest components,
how they come together, and then how they
change
All of this is what makes life possible
2.1 Matter, atoms, and molecules
• All matter consists of atoms, the smallest

units that retain all of the properties of their
type of matter.
• Atoms are usually bonded to each other to
form molecules.
Hydrogen
atom
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

2.1 Living things contain elements and
compounds.
• An element is a basic substance that can’t
be broken down.
– Examples of elements include hydrogen,
carbon, and gold.
– The smallest amount of an element is an
atom.

2.2 The Periodic Table:
In the periodic table, elements have something

in common if they are in the same row.
2.2 Elements are essential to life
• Four of the of the 92 known elements

make up the bulk of living cells.

2.2 Elements are essential to life.
• Seven are required in small quantities, and

14 are required in only tiny amounts.

THE “BIG 4”
96% of your body
is composed of
these 4 elements:
Oxygen (65%)
Carbon (18.5%)
Hydrogen (9.5%)
Nitrogen (3%)
OTHER (4%)
Calcium Potassium Sodium
Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine
• Trace amounts (less than 0.1%) of 15 other

elements are also found in the body.
2.3 The smallest unit of an element, an
atom, is made of smaller particles
• All matter is composed of atoms.
• Atoms themselves are composed of even
smaller subatomic particles.
• There are three types of subatomic
particles: neutrons, protons, and
electrons.

2.3 All atoms are composed of protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
Protons:
• Have positive charge
• Located in nucleus
• The number of
protons determines
the chemical element.
Neutrons:
• Have no charge
• Located in nucleus
Nitrogen Atom:
• The number of
7 protons neutrons determines
7 the isotope.
neutrons
7
electrons
2.3 All atoms are composed of protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
Electrons:
• Have negative charge
• Orbit nucleus at high
speeds
• Have little mass
• The number of
electrons determines
an atom’s ion state
and chemical reactivity.
Nitrogen Atom:
7 protons
7
neutrons
7
electrons
Nucleus
HYDROGEN ATOM Forces

Forces ofof attraction
attraction
1 Proton between
between positive
positive and
and
CARBON ATOM negative
negative charges
charges
0 Neutrons
6 Protons hold
hold the
the fast-moving
fast-moving
1 Electron electrons
6 Neutrons electrons (negative)
(negative)
close
close to
to the
the nucleus
nucleus
6 Electrons
Nucleus: (positive).
(positive).
Proton Neutron Electron

2.3 Ions vary in the number of electrons in
the electron cloud.
• When an atom loses or
gains electrons, it
becomes electrically
charged.
• Charged atoms are
called ions.
If a nitrogen atom gains

3 electrons, is it positively Nitrogen Ion:
7 protons
or negatively charged? 8 neutrons
10
electrons
In the image of an atom above, label the following:
i. Protons
ii. Neutrons
iii. Electrons
iv. The particle involved in bonding
v. A negative particle
vi. A positive particle
vii. A neutral particle

2.4 Atoms are held together by chemical
bonds.
• In a chemical reaction, atoms gain,
release, or share electrons.
– Ionic bonds involve the transfer of one or
more electrons from one atom to another.
– Covalent bonds involve the sharing of one or
more electrons between atoms.

ELECTRON SHELLS
Electrons move around the nucleus in designated areas called
electron shells. An atom can have as many as seven electron shells
in total.
First electron shell

(capacity: 2
electrons)
Second electron
shell
(capacity: 8
electrons)
Vacancy
Oxygen atom

2.4 Ionic bonds involve the transfer of one
or more electrons from one atom to another.
• Receiving atom is
negatively charged.
• Donating atom is
positively charged.
• The two atoms are
now held together by
attraction of their
opposite charges.

2.4 Covalent bonds involve the sharing of
one or more electrons between atoms.
• Atoms may share one
(single), two (double),
or three (triple)
electrons.
Covalent bonds are

the strongest of the
chemical bonds.

2.4 Within covalent bonds, electrons may
not be shared equally.
• Covalent bonds can be nonpolar (equal
sharing) or polar (unequal sharing).

2.4 Polar vs. nonpolar covalent bonds

2.4 Water is a polar molecule and that
results in attraction between molecules
–
+

Describe a polar water molecule using the
following terms:
electronegativity, electrons, somewhat

positive, somewhat negative, oxygen
atom, hydrogen atom

2.4 Water molecules form hydrogen bonds
Water molecules tend to align

themselves so that a negatively
charged oxygen faces a
positively charged hydrogen.
Both COVALENT and IONIC bonds can be
polar.
• True
• False
Solubility- “Like Dissolves Like”

2.1 Chemical reactions can rearrange bonds
between atoms but cannot create or destroy
matter
Chemical reactions are written with the reactants

on the left and the products on the right.
2.5 The polar nature of water molecules
explains most of water’s properties.
• Water has some important properties:
• Ice (frozen water) floats.
• Water is an effective solvent.
• Temperature regulation: water resists

temperature changes.
• Cohesion and adhesion: water molecules

stick together.

2.5 The polar nature of water means that
frozen water floats.
• As water freezes, stable hydrogen bonds
hold molecules apart.
• A chunk of ice has fewer water molecules

than an equal volume of liquid water.
2.5 Frozen water’s properties are important
for living things.
• If ice did not float, ponds, lakes, and even
the oceans would freeze solid.
• Life in water could
not survive if bodies
of water froze solid.

2.5 The polar nature of water means water
is an extremely effective solvent.
• Many liquids can act as
a solvent, a dissolving
agent, to form a mixture
called a solution.
• Water is the most
biologically important
solvent.

readily absorbs and releases heat.
• Liquid water can absorb
and store large amounts of
heat while only changing a
few degrees in
temperature.
• Water, therefore,
moderates temperatures.
The large amount of water on our planet

means that our temperatures are fairly stable.
2.5 Living things can use water to regulate
temperature.
• Evaporative cooling is one way that living
things can use water to regulate
temperature.
– Sweating is an example
of an organism regulating
temperature.

creates surface tension.
• Cohesion is the
tendency of molecules
to stick to each other.
– Due to hydrogen bonding,
water molecules have a
strong cohesion and A wolf spider can be
create surface tension. suspended on water due
to surface tension.
• Adhesion causes
water molecules to
stick to a different
substance.
Which characteristic of water enables it
to have unique properties?
• Hydrophilic
• Hydrophobic
• Polarity
• Covalent bonds

2.6 pH is a measure of the acidity of a
solution.
• The pH scale runs from acidic (0) to basic

(14).
• Each number in the pH scale represents a
tenfold change in H+ ion concentration.
2.6 An acid is a chemical that, when
dissolved in water, releases H+ ions.
Acids have a pH between 0 and 7.

2.6 A base is a chemical that, when
dissolved in water, removes H+ ions.
Bases have a pH between 7 and 14.

Which of the following are acidic? Basic? How
do you know?
What is a neutral solution?
2.6 Buffers can help reduce changes in pH.
• Cells regulate their pH through

the use of buffers, chemicals
that minimize changes in pH by
accepting H+ ions.
• Buffers within your blood
counteract a drop in pH that
occurs whenever you exercise.

2.6 How much can a change in pH impact
living things?
Background:
• When carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed
by seawater, chemical reactions reduce
seawater pH (making it more acidic).
• Low pH conditions impair the ability of
many marine
organisms to build
their skeletons or
shells.

2.7 Carbon is special because it is able to
form so many shapes.
• Carbon atoms can form long and
branching chains.
• These chains are the skeletons for a wide
variety of chemical compounds.
Molecules that contain carbon bonded to other

elements are called organic compounds.
2.7 Carbon is special because it is able to
take on functional groups.
• Functional groups are sets of atoms that
are attached to the carbon skeleton.
• In reactions with other compounds,
functional groups play important roles.

2.7 There are four classes of organic
molecules that are important to life.

2.7 There are four classes of organic
molecules that are important to life.

List the following food as primarily consisting of a
Protein
Carbohydrate
Lipid
_____1. Slice of bread
_____ 2. Butter
_____ 3. Tofu
_____ 4. Lettuce
_____ 5. Gummy bears
_____ 6. Lean Steak
_____ 7. Tortilla
_____ 8. Oil
_____ 9. Soda
_____ 10. Skinless chicken Breast
2.8 Most biological macromolecules are
polymers.
• The majority of your body weight is water.
• Most of the rest consists of
macromolecules, large molecules with
complex structure.
• Most are polymers, which are molecules
created by joining together smaller
molecules called monomers.

The Biological Molecules
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• DNA

2.9 Carbohydrates are a common source of
dietary energy.
• Carbohydrates are a
common source of
dietary energy for
animals and important
building blocks of
plants.
• “Carbs” include simple
sugars and larger
molecules made from
sugars.
2.9 Simple sugars (monosaccharides)
include glucose and fructose.

2.9 Carbohydrates are composed of simple
sugars.
• Simple sugars are also called
monosaccharides.
• Carbohydrates consist of one or more
monosaccharides joined together.
monosaccharides Carbohydrate
(Monomers) (Polymer)

2.9 A disaccharide is a double sugar.
• Two monosaccharides join to form a
disaccharide.
Many sugars have names that end in the suffix -ose.

2.9 A polysaccharide is made by joining
many monosaccharides together.
• Plants put together the polysaccharides
starch and cellulose from glucose.

2.9 Animals put together glycogen and
chitin from glucose.

Digestion and use of carbohydrates
2 carbohydrates bond together to form
_______________.
• Monosaccharides
• Disaccharides
• Polysaccharides
• Any of the above

2.10 Fats are also known as lipids.
• Fats perform essential functions in the

human body, including:
– Energy storage
– Cushioning
– Insulation
– Membrane function
– Hormone regulation

2.10 Lipids are important biological
molecules.
• Lipids are a diverse group of
organic compounds.
• We often refer to lipids as
“fats.”
• All lipids are hydrophobic
(“water-fearing”), meaning
they do not mix with water.

2.10 Cell membranes depend on lipids.
• Cells are surrounded

by a membrane that
regulates the passage
of material in and out.
• Cell membranes are
made by stacking two
layers of a molecule
called a phospholipid.

2.10 Cholesterol is a lipid that plays several
important roles.
• Cholesterol maintains
fluidity in most animal
cell membranes.
• Animal cells use
cholesterol to synthesize
several important lipid
hormones.
• Cholesterol is produced
in your body or taken in
from food.
2.10 What does it mean if your doctor tells
you have high cholesterol?
Cholesterol is found
in animal-derived
foods such as eggs
and red meat.

HDL vs LDL Cholesterol
- High Density Lipoproteins
- Low Density Lipoproteins
- HDL moves LDL cholesterol out of the arteries and into the
liver for the body to rid from there.
2.10 A typical dietary fat consists of a
molecule called a triglyceride.
• The carbon/hydrogen chains in the
triglyceride tails store energy (calories).
A triglyceride is one glycerol joined

to three fatty acid molecules.
2.10 Steroids are a type of lipid.
• Steroids differ because their carbon

skeleton is bent to form four fused rings.
• Steroids function in many roles.
• Attached functional groups affect function.
Cholesterol is one
familiar steroid.

2.10 The sex hormones estrogen and
testosterone are steroids.

2.10 The sex hormones estrogen and
testosterone are steroids.
• Anabolic steroids are
synthetic variants of
testosterone.
• These can increase body
mass but may have
dangerous side effects.
Some athletes have admitted

to using steroids as drugs to
enhance performance.
2.11 Your diet contains several different
kinds of fats.
• Dietary fats come in two basic varieties:
saturated fats and unsaturated fats
(including trans fats and omega-3 fats).

2.11 Saturated fats have no double bonds.
• Saturated fats are triglycerides that have

no double bonds in their carbon/hydrogen
chains.

2.11 Characteristics of saturated fats:
• Contain maximum number of hydrogens

• Solid at room temperature
• Higher amounts in animal products
• All single bonds
• Straight shape
• Less healthy

2.11 Unsaturated fats have double bonds.
• Unsaturated fats are triglycerides that

have double bonds in their
carbon/hydrogen chains.

2.11 Characteristics of unsaturated fats:
• Contain less than maximum number of

hydrogens
• Liquid at room temperature
• Higher amounts in plant products
• Contain double bonds
• Bent shape
• More healthy

2.11 Unsaturated fat can be made solid by
adding chemical bonds.
• Hydrogenation is a process that can
produce trans fat, a type of unsaturated
fat that contains an unusual bond.
• Trans fats are quite unhealthy.
Many deep-fried
fast foods, like
donuts, contain
trans fats.

2.11 We all need healthy fats.
• Some fats are essential to a healthy diet.

• Fats containing omega-3 fatty acids are
known to reduce the risk of heart disease.
Foods rich in
essential fats
should be part of a
well-balanced diet.

2.12 Proteins perform many of life’s
functions.
• Proteins are the most diverse molecules
that play important roles in your body.
• Each kind of protein in a cell has a unique
structure and shape that allows it to
perform a specific function.

2.12 Proteins are polymers made by joining
many amino acid monomers together.
Monomers Polymer
(amino acids) (protein)
There are 20 kinds A peptide bond joins

of amino acids. amino acids.

2.12 A polypeptide is a chain of amino
acids.
1. A polypeptide
contains amino acids.
2. Twists and folds lead to
a unique three-
dimensional shape.
3. Chains may be joined
together into a large
© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. complex. Chapter Table of Contents
2.12 Proteins perform a huge variety of
tasks.

Digestion and use of proteins
2.12 Protein function is determined by a
precise amino acid sequence and shape.
• The protein may not perform if the amino
acid sequence is changed even a little.

2.13 ENZYMES are a type of PROTEIN
2.13 Enzymes speed chemical reactions
• An enzyme is a protein that speeds up a
chemical reaction without being changed
itself. It lowers the activation energy of a
chemical reaction.

2.13 Each enzyme recognizes one specific
target molecule called its substrate

2.13 Like all proteins, enzyme FUNCTION
depends on SHAPE
• Changes in shape can prevent function.
– Denaturation
• High heat or extreme pH
• Gene mutations can change the shape of
lactase and make it ineffective, leading to
lactose intolerance.

Which of the following is a fat?
• Triglycerides
• Cholesterol
• Steroids
• All of the above

Which of the following is a protein?
• Sucrose
• Chitin
• Enzymes
• Triglycerides

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Chapter

All living matter is made up of chemicals

• All matter consists of atoms, the smallest

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

In the periodic table, elements have something

• Four of the of the 92 known elements

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Seven are required in small quantities, and

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

• Trace amounts (less than 0.1%) of 15 other

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

HYDROGEN ATOM Forces

Proton Neutron Electron

If a nitrogen atom gains

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

First electron shell

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

Covalent bonds are

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

electronegativity, electrons, somewhat

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

Water molecules tend to align

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemical reactions are written with the reactants

• Water is an effective solvent.

• Temperature regulation: water resists

• Cohesion and adhesion: water molecules

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

• A chunk of ice has fewer water molecules

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

The large amount of water on our planet

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

• The pH scale runs from acidic (0) to basic

Acids have a pH between 0 and 7.

Bases have a pH between 7 and 14.

• Cells regulate their pH through

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

Molecules that contain carbon bonded to other

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

Many sugars have names that end in the suffix -ose.

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2017 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter Table of Contents

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Fats perform essential functions in the