Aircraft Weight

and Balance

04 August 2012
 Objective

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• At the end of this presentation, the
Previous participants will have a general knowledge
on mass/weight and balance requirements
and procedures.
Next

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 Outline

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• Why do we need to weigh and balance the
Previous aircraft?
Next • What are the requirements for aircraft
mass/weight and balance?
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• When do we need to weigh the aircraft?

• How is it done?
 Home
• Why do we need to weigh and balance the
Previous aircraft?
Next
– Various Types of Aircraft have Different Load
Requirements
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 Transport Aircraft

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• Must carry huge loads
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of passengers and
cargo for long
Next distances at high
altitudes and speeds.
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 Military Aircraft

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• Must be highly
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maneuverable and
extremely sturdy.
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 Corporate Aircraft

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• Must carry a
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reasonable load at a
high speed for long
Next distances.

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 Agricultural Aircraft

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• Must carry large loads
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to short distances and
be extremely
Next maneuverable.

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 Trainers & Private Aircraft

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• Must be lightweight,
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low cost, simple, and
safe to operate.
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 Home
All aircraft regardless of their function
Previous have two common characteristics:
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– All are sensitive to weight.

– The center of gravity of the aircraft must be

maintained within a specified range.
 Sensitive to Weight

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• Aircraft designers must determine the
Previous maximum weight, based on the amount of
lift on the wings.
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• The structural strength of the aircraft also

limits the maximum weight the aircraft can
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carry.
 Center of Gravity Maintained within a
Specified Range
Home

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• The ideal location of the center of gravity
Next (C.G.) is very carefully determined by
designers.
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• The maximum deviation allowed from this

specific location is also calculated.
 Purpose of weight and balance control

Home The primary purpose of aircraft weight and

balance control is SAFETY – to prevent possible loss of
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human lives and destruction of valuable equipment
that may result from structural failure or change in
Next
flight characteristics of the aircraft, that renders it
Help unable to complete a flight, or even to start it.
A secondary purpose is to achieve utmost
EFFICIENCY during flight in terms of ceiling,
maneuverability, rate of climb, speed, and fuel
consumption.
 When an aircraft is designed, it is made as
light as the required structural strength will allow,
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and the wings or rotors are designed to support

the maximum allowable gross weight. When the
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weight of an aircraft is increased, the wings or

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rotors must produce additional lift and the
structure must support not only the additional
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static loads, but also the dynamic loads
imposed by flight maneuvers.
For example, the wings of a 3,000-pound
airplane must support 3,000 pounds in level flight,
but when the airplane is turned smoothly and
sharply using a bank angle of 60°, the dynamic
load requires the wings to support twice this, or
6,000 pounds.
 Home • Static load: The load imposed on an aircraft
structure due to the weight of the aircraft and its
Previous
contents.
Next • Dynamic load: The actual weight of the aircraft
multiplied by the load factor, or the increase in
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weight caused by acceleration.
• Load factor: The ratio of the maximum load an
aircraft can sustain to the total weight of the
aircraft. Normal category aircraft must have a load
factor of at least 3.8, utility category aircraft 4.4,
and acrobatic category aircraft, 6.0.
 Home
• Balance control refers to the location of the CG of
an aircraft. This is of primary importance to
Previous aircraft stability, which determines safety in flight.
Next
• The CG is the point at which the total
weight of the aircraft is assumed to be
Help concentrated, and the CG must be located
within specific limits for safe flight.
• Both lateral and longitudinal balance are
important, but the prime concern is longitudinal
balance; that is, the location of the CG along the
longitudinal or lengthwise axis.
 An airplane is designed to have
stability that allows it to be trimmed so it
Home

Previous will maintain straight and level flight with

hands off of the controls. Longitudinal
Next
stability is maintained by ensuring the CG
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is slightly ahead of the center of lift. This
produces a fixed nose-down force
independent of the airspeed. This is
balanced by a variable nose-up force,
which is produced by a downward
aerodynamic force on the horizontal tail
surfaces that varies directly with airspeed.
 Home

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 Home
• The basic aircraft design assumes that
Previous lateral symmetry exists. For each item of
weight added to the left of the centerline
of the aircraft (also known as buttock line
Next

Help zero, or BL-0), there is generally an equal

weight at a corresponding location on the
right.

• Lateral balance: Balance around the roll,

or longitudinal, axis.
 Home
• Butt (or buttock) line zero: A line
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through the symmetrical center of an
aircraft from nose to tail. It serves as the
Next
datum for measuring the arms used to find
Help the lateral CG. Lateral moments that cause
the aircraft to rotate clockwise are positive
(+), and those that cause it to rotate
counterclockwise are negative (–).
 Home

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 Home
• Some of the problems caused by overloading an aircraft are:
– The aircraft will need a higher takeoff speed, which results
Previous in a longer takeoff run.
– Both the rate and angle of climb will be reduced.
Next – The service ceiling will be lowered.
– The cruising speed will be reduced.
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– The cruising range will be shortened.
– Maneuverability will be decreased.
– Higher stalling speed.
– A longer landing roll will be required because the landing
speed will be higher.
– Excessive loads will be imposed on the structure,
especially the landing gear.
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• Service ceiling: The highest altitude at
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which an aircraft can maintain a steady rate
of climb of 100 feet per minute.
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 Effect of weight problems

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• Increase stalling speed
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• Decrease in rate of climb
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• Decrease in range
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 Adverse effect of a Nose-heavy condition

Home Causes problems in controlling and raising the

nose, especially during takeoff and landing.
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 Adverse effect of a Tail-heavy condition

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Causes problems on longitudinal stability and

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reduces ability of an airplane to recover from stalls and
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spins. It also produces very light stick forces which
makes it easy for the pilot to inadvertently overstress the
Help airplane.
 Home
• What are the requirements for aircraft
Previous mass/weight and balance?
Next

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• Regulations state that:

– Aircraft mass/weight must remain within limits
– Center of gravity location must also remain
within limits during all phase of operation
 Home
• When and how often do we weigh the
Previous aircraft?
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 Home
• From OPS 1.605
Previous – An operator must establish the mass and the
centre of gravity of any airplane by actual
Next weighing prior to initial entry into service and
thereafter at intervals of 4 years if individual
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airplane masses are used and 9 years if fleet
masses are used. The accumulated effects of
modifications and repairs on the mass and
balance must be accounted for and properly
documented. Furthermore, airplanes must be
reweighed if the effect of modifications on the
mass and balance is not accurately known.
 Home • From AC 08-016
3.6 PRESCRIBED RE-WEIGHING PERIODS
Previous
3.6.1 INDIVIDUAL AIRCRAFT WEIGHING PROGRAM
A. Aircraft are normally weighed at intervals of 36 calendar-months.
Next B. An operator may, however, extend this weighing period for a particular
model aircraft when—
1) Pertinent records of actual routine weighing during the preceding
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period of operation show that mass & balance records accurately
reflect aircraft weights; and
2) CG positions are within the cumulative limits specified for
establishment of OEW.
C. Under an individual aircraft weighing program, an increase should not
be granted which would permit any aircraft to exceed 48 calendar-
months since the last weighing, including when an aircraft is transferred
from one operator to another.
 In the case of helicopters, increases should not exceed a time
that is equivalent to the aircraft overhaul period.
 Requirements for reweighing the aircraft
1. Periodically, as specified in the Aircraft Operations
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Specifications and Maintenance Requirements (MR).
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2. After undergoing major alterations where changes in the
Aircraft Weight and Balance data exceed specified
Next
limits:
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a. Change in operating weight greater than +/- 0.5% of
MLW
b. Change in CG location greater than 0.5% of MAC
3. After experiencing unsatisfactory flight characteristics and
the cause could not be determined.
4. When the result of actual weight and balance is suspected
to be in error.
 Home
• How do we perform aircraft weighing?
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 Home
1. Prepare aircraft for weighing
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a. Aircraft must be cleaned
b. Fuel and oil must be drained
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c. Hydraulic fluid quantity must be full
Help d. Flight control surfaces in normal stowed position
e. Basic items must be on board in their normal positions
f. Doors and windows must be closed
g. Weighing must be done inside a closed area
 Home
2. Prepare the weighing scale
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a. Check calibration
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record
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b. Check operation
 Home
3. Position aircraft on the weighing scale
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Level the aircraft
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4. Take scale readings and record in W & B
Help report form
5. Take measurement of moment arms
6. Compute for the empty weight and CG
 Definitions
Datum Line
Home
The datum is an imaginary line on a vertical plane from which all
horizontal measurements on the aircraft are taken for weight and
Previous balance purposes. These measurements are taken with the aircraft
in a level flight position.
Next
The actual location of the datum for a particular type of aircraft
can be any point selected by the manufacturer. There is a
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tendency today for the manufacturers to place the datum forward
of the nose of the aircraft.

Why?

Answer:
So that all mesurement arms will be positive numbers.
 Datum Line

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 Datum Line

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 Weight

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Weight
Previous The force exerted by gravity (Newton or pounds)

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Positive (+) for items added
Negative (-) for items removed
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 Center of Gravity, CG

Home Center of Gravity

The center of gravity (commonly abbreviated CG) is the point at
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which the total weight of the aircraft is assumed to be
concentratded, and the CG must be located within the specific limits
for safe flight.
Next

Both lateral and longitundinal balance are important, but the

Help prime concern is longitudinal balance; that is the location of the CG
along the longitudinal or lengthwise axis. An Airplane is designed to
have stability that allows it to be trimmed so it will maintain straight
and level flight with hands off the controls. Longitudinal stability is
maintained by ensuring the CG is slightly ahead of the center of lift.
This produces a fixed nose down force independent of the airspeed.

As long as the CG is maintained within the allowable limits for its

weight, the airplane will have adequate longitudinal stability and
control.
 Center of Gravity, CG
We could possibly suspend a light aircraft from various
Home
points to locate the CG but this would be highly impractical
and also impossible with a large aircraft. So, for practicality,
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it must be done mathematically. The formula for obtaining
the center of gravity is the total moment divided by the total
Next weight which may be abbreviated

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CG = TM / TW

Other formulas may be used to obtain the center of gravity

of an aircraft, as we will discuss later, but these variatons
will always utilize the total moment divided by the total
weight formula.
 Home
Empty Weight Center of Gravity
Previous

Next
The empty weight CG is the CG of an aircraft in its
empty weight condition, and is an important part
Help of the Weight and Balance Record. The
information in the Aircraft Operation Manual is
general for the particular model of airplane. The
information in the Aircraft Weight and Balance
Record is particular to a specific airplane
 Center of Gravity

Home
Center of gravity (CG)
Previous The point where the weight of an object or item
is concentrated.
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 Mean Aerodynamic Chord

Home Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)

The average distance from the leading edge to the trailing
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edge of the wing. The location of the MAC in relation to the
datum is given in the Aircraft Specifications, Type Certificate
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Data sheets, Weight and Balance Report, or the Aircraft Flight
Manual.
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LEMAC
Leading edge of mean aerodynamic chord. Its position is
expressed in length units aft of the datum.
TEMAC
Trailing edge of the mean aerodynamic chord. Also expressed
in length units aft of the datum.
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 Moment Arm

Home
Center of Gravity range
Previous The distance between the forward and aft CG
limits indicated on pertinent airplane
Next
specifications.
Help Moment Arm, Lever Arm or Arm
The horizontal distance that an item is located from
the datum (inches or cm)
Positive (+) for items located aft of the datum
Negative (-) for items located forward of the datum.
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 Moment Arm

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 Moment

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Moment
Previous The product of the weight and its arm.

Next
Moments may either be positive or negative
depending on its location with respect to the
Help datum and whether the items are added or
removed
Moment index
The moment divided by a constant such as 100,
1000 or 10000, for purposes of simplifying weight
and balance computations.
 Weighing Point

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Weighing point
Previous The point on the scale where the weight is
concentrated.
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 Empty Weight

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Empty Weight
Previous Includes the weight of the airframe, powerplant,
all permanently-installed equipment (required,
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optional or special), fixed ballast, hydraulic fluid,
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residual fuel and oil, and air conditioning fluid.

Residual fuel and oil

Weight of fuel and oil that will not normally drain
out because they are trapped in the lines and
tanks.
 Empty Weight

Home Delivery empty weight or Standard empty weight

Empty weight plus the weight of standard items that are not
Previous
considered as an integral part of a particular aircraft configuration
(emergency equipment, fire extinguishers, galley structures, etc.).
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Basic empty weight
Help Delivery empty weight plus or minus the net weight of standard
items which the operator chooses to add, omit, or change for his
convenience. Basic Empty Weight includes the weight of the
standard aircraft, any optional or special equipment, fixed ballast,
unusable fuel, and full operating fluids including oil, hydraulic fluid,
and other fluids required for normal operations of aircraft systems
except potable water, lavatory precharge water, and water
intended for injection in the engines.
 Basic operating weight (BOW) or Operational Weight Empty
Home

Basic empty weight plus the weight of standard operational items

Previous (flight and cabin crewmembers, their baggage, meals and water,
oil, alcohol and normal passenger service equipment).
Next Dry Operating Weight
This weight is the total mass of the aircraft ready for specific type
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of operation excluding all usable fuel and traffic load. For a fleet
or a group of airplanes of the same model and configuration, an
average Dry Operating Weight and CG position may be used as
the fleet mass and CG position, provided that the dry operating
weight and CG positions of the individual airplanes meet the
tolerances of designated specifications. Tolerances up to (+ / -
0,5 % ) of DOW or CG are allowed.
 Useful load
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Weight of oil, useable fuel, cargo flight and cabin crewmembers,
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passengers and their baggage. It includes all the load which is
removable, which is not permanently part of the airplane.
Next Payload
Part of the useful load where revenue may be derived including the
Help weight of cargo and passengers (revenue and non-revenue).
Zero fuel weight
BOW plus the payload. The weight of the airplane exclusive of usable
fuel.
Operating Weight
BOW plus useable fuel. The weight of the airplane exclusive of payload.
 Home Ramp weight (taxi weight)
Zero fuel weight plus the weight of all the useable fuel on
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board.
Next Ramp fuel
Fuel used prior to takeoff.
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Takeoff weight
Ramp or taxi weight minus ramp fuel.
Landing weight
Takeoff weight minus the weight of fuel burned and
dumped en route.
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 Maximum weights

Home
Maximum weight
Previous Maximum authorized gross weight of the aircraft
and its contents depending on the purpose and
conditions under which the aircraft is operated.
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The maximum weights that must be observed
because of structural limits are maximum zero
fuel weight, maximum ramp weight, maximum
takeoff weight and maximum landing weight.
 Maximum weights

Home Maximum Take−Off Weight

The maximum weight approved for the start of the take−off run.
Previous
Maximum Ramp Weight
Next The maximum weight approved for ground maneuvering. It
includes the weight of fuel used for start, taxi and run up.
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Maximum Landing Weight
The maximum weight approved for landing touchdown.
Maximum Weight − Zero Fuel
The maximum weight−zero fuel limits the load which may be
carried in the fuselage. Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) is not
adjustable, it limits the structural integrity at the wing to body joint.
 Home

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 Passenger Weights

Home Passenger Weights

Actual passenger weights must be used in computing the
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weight of an airplane with limited seating capacity. Allowance
must be made for heavy winter clothing when such is worn.
Next
Winter clothing may add as much as 14 lbs to a person’s
basic weight; summer clothing would add about 8 lbs. On
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larger airplanes with quite a number of passenger seats and
for which actual passenger weights would not be available,
the average passenger weights of (182 lbs for males in
Winter and 188 lbs in summer season. 135 lbs and 141 lbs
for females) may be used. The specified weights for males
and females include an allowance for 8 lbs of carry−on
baggage.
 Home Expendable Loads
Fuel 6 lbs/US gal
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Oil 7.5 lbs/US gal

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 Reciprocating Engine

Home Minimum fuel

Amount of fuel that must be used when the airplane is
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loaded for an extreme condition check. For piston engine
aircraft, the minimum fuel is 1/12 US gallon per METO hp.
Next
For turbine-powered aircraft, minimum fuel is specified by
the aircraft manufacturer.
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METO
Maximum except takeoff.
Tare weight
Weight of extra items on the weighing scale platform
such as chocks, blocks and jacks.
 Home

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 Weight and Balance Computations

Home THE LAW OF THE LEVER

Determination of Mass-Moments
Previous

All weight and balance problems are based on the physical

Next law of the lever. This law states that a lever is balanced when
the weight on one side of the datum multiplied by its arm is
Help equal to the weight on the opposite side multiplied by its
arm. In other words, the lever is balanced when the algebraic
sum of the moments about the datum is zero. This is the
condition in which positive moments ( those that try to rotate
the lever clockwise ) are equal to the negative moments
( those that try to rotate the lever counterclockwise ).
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 Formulas

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 Example 1

Home A board has a weight of 25 pounds on the left and a

weight of 50 pounds on the right. Between the center of the
Previous two weights there is 12 feet. In order to find out where the
fulcrum must be placed to balance the two weights, choose
Next an arbitrary location for the datum and construct a chart that
lists the two weights, their arms, and their moments. For
Help example the datum is located at the center of the 25 pound
weight.
A lever problem is simplified if you draw a picture of
the problem and construct a chart.
 Home In the figure, the weight A is used as a datum. Since
the weight A is directly over the datum, its arm and moment
Previous are zero. However, the arm of weight B is 12 feet and
therefore, has a moment of 600 pound feet ( 12 X 50 =
Next 600 ). To find the balance point, divide the total moment by
the total weight. The total moment is 600 pound-feet and the
Help total weight is 75 pounds.This places the balance point eight
feet to the right of the datum.
 Example 1

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 Example 2

Home Determination of Balancepoint with negative and

positive arms
Previous
To check your calculations and prove that the board balances
at the 8−foot point, make a chart similar to the above.
Next

However, this time use the 8−foot point as the datum. When
Help this is done, all distances to the right are considered positive
and all distances to the left are negative
Weight A has an arm of negative eight feet, and a
corresponding moment of negative 200 pound-feet.
The arm of weight B is a positive four feet, and has a
moment of 200 pound-feet. The sum of the moments
is zero and therefore, the board balances.
 Example 2

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 Example 3

Home Determination of balancepoint with datum ahead of the

Aircraft
Previous
When Aircraft manufacturers place the datum a given distance
ahead of the aircraft to make all moments positive, the balance
Next point is still calculated the same way. For example, assume the
datum is located six feet to the left of the weight A in our
Help previous example.
The moment of A is +150 pound-feet, whereas, the
moment of weight B is +900 pound-feet. This equates to
a total moment of +1050 pound-feet. When this is
divided by the total weight, the balance point is found to
be 14 feet to the right of the datum. This is the same
location found in the previous example, eight feet to the
right of weight A.
 Example 3

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 Example 4

Home Shifting Center of gravity by weight additionals or

reductions
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Assume you have a 50 pounds weight that is 25 inches to the
left of the fulcrum, a 40 pound weight that is 45 inches to the
Next
right of the fulcrum, and a third, 50 pound weight that you
want to place on the board to make it balance
Help

To determine where to place weight C, add the

moments of both weight A and B together. Since the
moment of weight B is greater than that of A, there is
a net force, or a moment of + 550 poundinches to the
right of the fulcrum.
 Example 4

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 Continuation of Example 4

Home Where to place weight C?

With the moment calculated, the next step is to dtermine
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where to place weight C. In order to make the board
balance, a force of -550 pound inches must be exerted left of
Next
the fulcrum. To determine where weight C must be placed,
divide the force ( moment ) needed by 50 pounds. The
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center of weight C must be 11 inches to the left of the
fulcrum. To prove this, calculate the total moment on each
side of the fulcrum.
The sum of the moments left of the fulcrum is -1800
pound-inches, and the moment right of the fulcrum is
+1800 pound-inches, therefore, the board balances.
 Continuation of Example 4

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 Problem 1

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 Answer

Home
Weight (kg) Arm (STA in cm) Moment (kg-cm)
Previous 2000 1057 2114000
1400 2296 3214400
Next

34000 1100 37400000

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37400 42728400

CG = 42728400 / 37400

CG = 1142 cm
 Problem 2

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 Answer

Home
Items Weight (kg) Arm (cm) Moment (kg-cm)
Previous NLG 6500 500 3250000

Next
MLGL 29300 1614 47290200
MLGR 29200 1614 47128800
Help

65000 97669000

CG = 97669000 / 65000 = 1502.6 = 1503 cm

 Problem 3

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 Answer

Home Items Weight (kg) Arm (cm) Moment (kg-cm)

EW 150000 3302 495300000
Previous
Ballast x_____ 5054 5054x____
150000 + x 495300000 + 5054x
Next

Help CG = 3355 = (495300000 + 5054x) / (150000 + x)

3355 (150000 + x) = 495300000 + 5054x
503250000 + 3355x = 495300000 + 5054x
5054x – 3355x = 503250000 – 495300000
1699x = 7950000
X = 7950000 / 1699
X = 4679.22 kg
 Problem 4

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 Answer

Home Items Weight (kg) Arm (cm) Moment (kg-cm)

EW 6500 200 1300000
Previous
2 Pilots 150 80 12000
Next Cargo1 400 220 88000
Cargo2 200 280 56000
Help
Fuel 700 210 147000
7950 1603000
CG = 1603000 / 7950 = 201.6 = 202 cm

202 – 180 = 22
(22 / 90) x 100% = 24%
 Problem 5

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 Answer

Home For empty weight center of gravity:

Items Weight (kg) Arm (cm) Moment (kg-cm)
Previous

NLG 304.7 66 20110.2

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MLGL 472.1 267 126050.7
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MLGR 473.2 267 126344.4
1250 272505.3
CG = 272505.3 / 1250 = 218
 Home For loaded aircraft;
Items Weight (kg) Arm (cm) Moment (kg-cm)
Previous

EW 1250 218 272505.3

Next
Radar 12__ 16 192____
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1262 272697.3
CG = 272697.3 / 1262 = 216
 Home
Payload Computations:
Previous
Maximum Limits Trip Limits
Next
Landing Weight
+ Trip fuel + __________
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T/O Weight
fuel load - ___________

Zero fuel Weight

- BOW - ___________

Payload ___________
 Example:
Home
What is the maximum payload under these conditions?
BOW 100500 lbs
Previous Max. zero fuel weight 138000 lbs
Max. landing weight 142000 lbs
Next Max. T/O weight 184200 lbs
Fuel tank load 54000 lbs
Help
Est. fuel burn en route 40000 lbs

Solution:
Maximum Weight Trip Weight
142000 Landing Weight 142000
+ Trip fuel + 40000
184200 T/O Weight 182000
fuel load - 54000
138000 Zero fuel Weight 128000
- BOW - 100500
Payload 27500
 Home

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 Weighing Procedures

Home Information on which to base the record of weight and balance

changes to the aircraft may be obtained from pertinent aircraft
Previous specification as follow;
Type Certificate Data Sheet ( TCDS )
Next
Prescribed Aircraft Operating Limitations
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Aircraft Operation Manual ( AOM )
Aircraft Weight and Balance Record
Aircraft Maintenance Manual ( AMM )
Weight and Balance Manual ( WBM )
ATA Chapter 8
Leveling and Weighing
 Aircraft Weight and Balance record

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 Home TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET ( TCDS )
Aircraft Specification
Previous
The Type Certificate Data Sheet is a document which contains a
Next
formal description of the aircraft, including detailed specifications
of the type design and the information required for type
certification as well as weight and balance information as follows.
Help

Center of gravity range

Empty weight CG range
Maximum weight
Position of datum
Leveling means
 Type Certificate Data Sheet

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 Load and Trim Sheets

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 Home

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 Leveling Means

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 Weight and Balance Computer ( WBC )

Home Some large transport Aircraft have an on board aircraft weighing

system called (OBAWS) that, when the aircraft is on the ground,
Previous gives the flight crew and the maintenance technician a continues
indication of the aircraft gross weight and the location of the
Next Center of gravity in % MAC.
The system consists of strain sensing transducers in each main
Help wheel and nose wheel axle, a weight and balance computer, and
indicators that show the gross weight, the CG location in % MAC,
and an indicator of the ground attitude of the aircraft (leveling).
The strain sensors measure the amount each axle deflects and
send this data into the computer, where signals from all of the
transducers and the ground attitude sensor are integrated. The
results are displayed on the indicators in the cockpit.
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