AIRFRAME STRUCTURES

GENERAL CONCEPTS
 INTRODUCTION
• An aircrafts structure is designed to withstand flight forces whilst
remaining aerodynamically efficient. The forces are:

Lift
Drag
Weight
Thrust

An aircrafts structure is generally made of three different types of member

Beams - resist bending moments

Struts - compression loads
Ties - tensile loads
• Any load or bending moment acting on the
aircrafts structure could be measured in pounds,
kilograms or Newton's.
• The most important factor is the relationship
between this load and the cross-sectional area of
the member.
• THIS IS CALLED STRESS and is measured in
pounds per square inch, Newton's per square
meter or another suitable unit.
• Or simply : STRESS =FORCE
AREA
• In a simple beam there are two stresses
trying to cause failure, stress due to bending
and stress due to shear. In diagram (a) on
the following slide, the bending moment is
the greatest in the centre where the load is
applied

• In diagram (b), however, which uses a

cantilever structure, the bending moment is
most at the support end.
 (a) Simply
supported beam (b)Cantilever beam
• In practice a beam can be tapered to evenly
distribute the stress along its length.

• Shear force is greatest near the points of

support and least at the centre of the span in
a simply supported beam.

• In a cantilever beam, shear force does not

vary along the length of the beam if the
weight of the beam is ignored.
• We have already established that a strut is a
member in compression and a tie is a
member in tension.
• Struts are often hollow, whereas ties are
mostly solid, rods or wires.
• In practice few members are one thing or
the other due to the complex stresses they
will take.
• When a member is subjected to a load, it
will move under the effect of this load, e.g.
a tie will stretch.
• This movement is called STRAIN.
• STRAIN = CHANGE OF LENGTH
ORIGINAL LENGTH

A beam is a member subjected to bending, it may be

supported at both ends or only at one end.
A beam supported at one end only is called a
CANTILEVER.
When a beam is put under load, the surface on the
outside of the bend will be in tension and the
surface on the inside of the bend will be in
compression.
• If the beam is a solid member there will be
a plane in the middle that is neither in
compression nor in tension.
• This is known as the neutral plane of the
neutral axis.
• It is a requirement that all aircraft under construction must
conform to minimum airworthiness requirements as laid
down in BCAR’s.

• The minimum SAFETY FACTOR specified in BCAR’s is

1.5 (with provisions for castings and forgings).

• The SAFETY FACTOR can be considered as the

relationship between the capability of a structural member
to carry the working load and its ultimate strength
(breaking point of material).
 LOAD FACTORS
• A major consideration in aircraft design is
the variation of loads which the structure
must withstand

• A load factor is used to identify the specific

number of cycles the structure will
withstand before failure.
 NORMAL LOAD

• This can be considered as the load imposed

on the structure which is directly attributed
to the weight of the aircraft in straight and
level flight.
 OPERATING LOAD
• An aircraft in certain modes of flight will have an
increased load imposed on its structure.
• The manufacturer will impose limits on the
operational capabilities of its aircraft.
• This limit (or operating load) is generally less
than two thirds of the aircrafts ultimate load due to
permanent distortion and damage caused as the
airframe approaches its ultimate load.
 ULTIMATE LOAD
• This is the maximum load that the aircrafts
structure will withstand before complete failure. It
covers factors such as:
• Variation and degradation of materials used
• Flight outside the aircrafts permissible envelope.
• This load forms the basis for minimum structural
requirements in the initial design and construction
of the aircraft.
 STRUCTURAL
CLASSIFICATION
• The structure of an aircraft falls into three
main categories:

• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
 PRIMARY STRUCTURE
• This can be described as any part of the
aircraft structure, which upon failure, will
cause the catastrophic loss of control of the
aircraft, or inhibit the operation of essential
services/equipment.
• Frames
• Main spars
• Engine mount points
 SECONDARY STRUCTURE
• This can be described as sections of the
structure which have a considerable amount
of strength above the design specifications
of the aircraft.
• Stringers
• Fuselage skin
• Wing ribs
 TERTIARY STRUCTURE
• This portion of the structure can be
classified as any part that does not incur
structural loads.
• They are normally sections of structure that
are necessary for aerodynamic reasons only.
• Fairings
• Support brackets
 FAILSAFE STRUCTURE
• In the event of failure of a primary section
of the airframe, there is sufficient strength
in associated parts of the localised area
which failure has occurred to maintain the
aircraft in flight for a limited period of time.
• This is dependant on the nature of the
failure , and how widespread the failure is.
• A structural failure can be described as
complete or partial cracking of a portion of
primary or secondary structure.
• The nature of the failure can usually be
attributed to:
• Fatigue loads
• Corrosion
• Stress corrosion
• Accidental damage
• In addition to the structural strength of this
type of structure, the crack propagation
characteristics of the materials used are
sufficiently slow.
• The design of the structure allows for ease
of inspection and monitoring.
• This allows for a limited operational period
where an acceptable but reduced
airworthiness status is maintained and
monitored for structural strength and
stiffness.
 FAIL-SAFE ESSENTIAL
FEATURES
• The materials used should have low crack
propagation and residual strength properties
• The material thickness is chosen so that stress
levels are low for the critical fatigue load
conditions
• The structure must have alternative load paths and
crack stoppers
• Sufficient structural access for visual and NDT
testing.
 SAFE-LIFE STRUCTURE
• A safe-life structure possess a relatively quick
crack propagation characteristic
• It is therefore essential that the safe-life
component is removed before cracking
commences
• In comparison to fail-safe structure, safe-life will
retain its full static strength and stiffness
throughout its designated operational life.
• The safe-life or fatigue life of a component
must be established for every component.
• This life is expressed in terms of flying
hours, number of flights or number of
application loads.
• In order to establish a safe-life, it is
necessary to estimate the pattern of repeated
loads in service and to carry out loading
tests on the components.
• Theses tests are used to establish the safe-
life of individual components.
• The fatigue behaviour of a structure can be
assumed as:

1. The period before crack propagation

commences

2. The period of steady crack propagation

3. The period of rapid or unstable crack

propagation
• While fail-safe structure can be allowed to
extend over stages 1 and 2.

• Safe-life structure is restricted to stage 1

only
An example of a Safe-Life spar
• The spar illustrated on the previous slide is
manufactured in two sections.
• The top section consists of a cap, riveted to
the upper web plate.
• The lower section is a single extrusion
consisting of a lower cap and web plate.
• If either section of this type of spar should
fail, the other will take the load.
• This type of construction follows the Fail-
Safe concept.
 DAMAGE TOLERANCE
• As previously stated the main drawback of
a Fail-Safe structure is the additional weight
of the structure through the use of
additional structural members.
• Damage tolerant structures eliminate the
need for additional structure by distributing
the load of a particular structure over a
larger area.
• This concept ensures that if any part of the
structure suffers cracking or partial failure,
the remaining structure will be able to
withstand reasonable loads without failure
until the damage is detected.
• This means that during normal inspection
cycles, any damage will be found before a
failure occurs.
• The following slide illustrates this type of
structure.
• The previous slide shows a wing to body
attachment (both old and new design).
• The original design relies on the pin to
accommodate the entire load. This
arrangement incurs serious fatigue due to
the fluctuating loads imparted on the pin.
• The original design must also possess a
reinforced section of structure to
accommodate the pin, therefore increasing
the overall weight of the component.
• The new design incorporates a fixed joint
that runs the entire depth of the spar.
• This arrangement gives us a better load
transference and also minimises fatigue at
the joint.
• By having numerous fasteners (attachment
points). The concept of Fail-Safe is
maintained.
• Fatigue will be easily identifiable by the
degradation of the fasteners before a failure
occurs.
 MULTIPLE LOAD PATH
• This method incorporates a number of small
members, each carrying a small percentage
of the total load.

• In the event of failure of one load member,

the other members will “take on” the load.
• This aileron
attachment is a typical
example of a damage
tolerant structure.

• This structure also

incorporates primary
and secondary
structure.
• A further method of achieving damage
tolerance is by the use of crack limiting
joints.
• This is where parts of the structure are
designed with crack limiting joints.
• These also ensure that these cracks can be
easily detected during normal inspection
cycles.
• The following slide illustrates additional
skin cleats which restrict cracks to one bay
width.
 skin

stringer
Skin
cleat

cleat
• The fail-safe concept is not restricted to structural
components.
• If we look at a passenger cabin window, you will
note that it has to withstand the pressurisation of
the fuselage.
• In the next slide you should note that both the
inner and outer pane are more than capable of
taking these loads.
• It is therefore logical to assume that if one fails,
the other is more than capable of withstanding the
load, hence this may be assumed as Fail-Safe.
 ZONAL AND STATION
IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS
 LOCATION NUMBERING SYSTEM
(STATION NUMBERS) FUSELAGE
STATIONS

• In order to identify a part of an airframe, a

station number is used.
• The station number is often a measurement
in inches or millimetres from a fixed point
in the airframe. (station zero).
• Station Zero may be the nose of the aircraft,
where station 500 may be 500 inches or
millimetres aft from the nose.

• Alternatively, if the centre of the airframe is

used as zero, then 500f would be 500 inches
forward of zero, or, 500a would be 500
inches aft of zero.
 WATER LINES
• Vertical measurements are made along
water lines and are measured from water
line zero.
• In the following slide we can see that the
cabin floor is WL-16 which means that it is
16 inches below the water line.
An example of a water line
BUTTOCK LINES
• Distances to the right or
the left of the centre line
of the fuselage are
measured by buttock lines
• The tip of the horizontal
stabiliser is located at
BL108.88 which means
that it is 108.88 inches
from the fuselage centre
line.
Wing station may also be measured from the
fuselage centre line or possibly from the wing
root
 IN SUMMATION
• Fuselage stations are used for locations fore and
aft along the fuselage.
• Water lines locate positions vertically on the
fuselage.
• Buttock lines locate points to the right or left of
the centre line of the fuselage.
• Wing stations are measurements along the span of
the wing, with wing station zero being the centre
line of the fuselage.
 ZONING
• The following diagrams show how an
aircraft is divided into Major Zones and
Major Sub-Zones.
• All zones are identified by three digit
numbers.
• The first digit defines the major zone.
• The remaining two digits denote the major
sub-zone.
Major zones
Major sub-zones
 ACCESS DOORS AND
PANELS
• Each access door or Panel is identified by by a
numerical/alpha number.
• The numeric component of the number is the three digit
number which identifies the smallest zone in which the
door is located.
• The two element alpha suffix designates the location of the
door within the zone.
• The first alpha letter identifies the door within the zone in
a logical sequence, i.e.: inboard to outboard.
• The second alpha letter identifies the door in its relation to
the aircraft as follows:
• T = top

• B = bottom

• L = left hand (port)

• R = right hand (starboard)

• Z = internal

• For example : access door 230 ER would be the fifth

access door aft of frame 74 on the fuselage right side.
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

DESIGN AND PHILOSOPHY

• If we take the Airbus as an example of a
typical modern liner design:
• The structure is designed to be both fail-
safe and damage tolerant.
• The basic material used is a high strength
aluminium alloy, with certain components
and fittings made from steel or titanium.
• Glass fibre laminates and non-perforated
honeycomb structures are also used in small
areas of the structure.
• A safe structural life is established by a
fatigue test programme that exceeds the
expected working life of the airframe.

• Through the use of this programme, the

manufacturer is able to identify any
possible weak points in the primary
structure and issue modifications.
 FATIGUE TESTING
• These tests are carried out with the use of
rigs on separate sections of the structure.
• By carrying out these tests on separate
sections it ensures that the tests start early
in the production life, and any tests or
inspection problems do not restrict work on
other sections of the airframe
• The fatigue test
programmes cover a
total of 120,000 flights
• The tests are divided
between random
operational loadings
and investigations of
crack propagation.
• The first stage of
96,000 simulated
flights give a margin
of 100% over the
design target for
economic repair.
• The second stage involves
a series of 24,000
simulated flights checking
crack propagation.
• These are carried out on
selected areas of the
structure that have been
weakened by saw cuts.
• The object of this exercise
is to compare crack
propagation with
calculations to establish
the tolerance to damage of
the structure.
 TEST LOADING OF THE
SECTTIONS
• These simulated flight and ground loads are applied to the
structure through dual action hydraulic jacks that transmit
both compression and tension loads.
• The simulated pressurisation loads are applied by
compressed air .
• For safety and time saving, the internal fuselage is filled to
75% of its volume with polystyrene blocks.
• The whole test programme is computer controlled,
comparing actual with calculated loads. Any significant
difference automatically halting the test.
 FATIGUE
• As we have already established, a continuous
increasing load on a piece of material will
eventually reach its ultimate static load and
fracture it.
• If, however the load is significantly less than the
ultimate static load, but is applied in continuous
cycles, the material will stretch, but return to its
original shape when the cycle is complete.
• When visually inspected, the material will
show no sign of degradation of its structure.

• However, the material is actually work

hardening and will eventually after a certain
number of cycles, weaken and crack.

• This phenomenon of fracturing after a

series of cyclic loads is known as fatigue.
 FATIGUE TESTING
• The fatigue testing of an airframe is carried out on a
structure taken off the production line.
• It is then subjected to a series of tests designed to
simulate the airframes working life.
• By this method, an equivalent of many thousands of
actual flying hours can be reproduced on the
airframe in a short period of time.
• The actual testing and recording of flight forces,
weights, height, airspeed, etc are controlled by
computer.
• After each period of testing is complete.
The structure is scrutinised for signs of
failure or material degradation.
• The results of the tests, together with the
data available for the structural materials,
enable an accurate prediction to be made on
how long, in terms of aircraft life and total
fatigue, the aircraft can safely remain in
service.
• The aircraft , or parts of it, is then
scheduled for replacement before its safe
life is exhausted.
• Some aircraft, in particular military aircraft,
use a fatigue indexing system.
• The safe life or fatigue life of a particular
aircraft is given in terms of a fatigue index.
• A higher fatigue index may be given to
aircraft if the airframe has been subjected to
further tests or if major structural parts have
been replaced.
• To determine the amount of fatigue index
used for a particular flight, requires a
fatigue meter to be fitted.
• The fatigue meter will measure the varying
loads imposed on the airframe by the action
of manoeuvres, landings or atmospheric
conditions and converts these into “G”
loads, which are recorded by the fatigue
meter.

• On landing, the “G” load figures are

recorded and a calculation of the amount of
fatigue life consumed during the flight is
made.
 STRUCTURAL SURVEYS
• Structural surveys and NDT programmes
are carried out to ensure the continuing
integrity of an airframe.
• As the aircraft is maintained to an approved
maintenance schedule, these surveys
provide a continuous assessment of the
airframes structural condition.
• With long life aircraft, a more in-depth
inspection may be required by the
manufacturers.

• This may take the form of a structural

integrity programme or structural surveys,
where more in-depth inspections may need
to be carried out such as NDT testing.
 STRUCTURAL SURVEYS
• Information for structural surveys can be
found in CAA Airworthiness notice 89.
• This document outlines inspection
requirements relating to structural re-
assessment, and also the development of a
continuing structural inspection programme
for older transport aircraft.
 STRUCTURAL RE-
ASSESSMENT
• This involves:-
– The identification of structural parts which
contribute significantly to carrying flight,
ground and pressure loads whose failure would
affect the structural integrity of the aircraft.
These items are know as structurally significant
items. Typical examples are spars, bulkheads,
landing gear, beams, etc.
– The establishment of a procedure for
developing programmes that provide a high
probability of detecting fatigue damage before
the residual structural strength falls below the
fail-safe requirements.
• A programme such as this is normally
directed at older types of aircraft, as these
are normally the aircraft with the highest
number of flight cycles and are therefore
most likely to experience initial fatigue
damage.
• The inspection programme is normally
directed to aircraft that have high cycle
figures and is usually requested by the
aircraft manufacturer.
• The areas of the structure that the inspection
is concentrated on is decided on by the
manufacturer.
• Additionally, structural sampling may be
required by the manufacturer, where a
section of structure is removed and
laboratory tests are carried out to determine
the exact degradation of the construction
materials.
 NDT INSPECTION
PROGRAMMES
• NDT inspections may be called up at
various times during an aircrafts life. For
example:
– Scheduled maintenance
– Implementation of service bulletins
– Special structural survey checks
• The use of NDT equipment and methods
are carried out to detect degradation within
aircraft structures and components before it
causes major problems.

• To achieve this, NDT inspections are

carried out at set times. These times or
frequencies can be dependant upon cycles,
hours, landings, etc, and are normally
incorporated into maintenance schedules.
• NDT checks may also be called up during
special structural survey checks. The most
commonly used forms of NDT checks are:-
• Visual
• Penetrant (dye)
• Magnetic particle
• X-ray
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• One or more of the afore mentioned
methods may be called upon by the
manufacturer in order to establish the best
course of repair to the particular component
or section of airframe.
• There is no best inspection method. Most
NDT procedures are used when they are
best suited to the task in hand and are
dependant on time-scale, access,
requirements, etc.
 AIRCRAFT DRAINAGE
• Drainage and drain paths are provided in
aircrafts structures to prevent the collection
of water and other fluids within the
structure.
• The collection of such fluids could
cause/accelerate corrosion, or fire.
• Airframe drainage may be separated into
two main categories:-

– External drains

– Internal drains
 EXTERNAL DRAINS
• Exterior drains are located on exterior
surfaces of the fuselage, wing and
empennage to dump fluid overboard.
• In non-pressurised areas the drain ports are
always open, but in pressurised areas, air
leakage has to be considered.
• There are three main types of drain valve
used for this purpose
• Two of the types mentioned rely upon
pressurised air within the cabin to keep the
valves closed.
• Both are open when the aircraft is stationary
on the ground, allowing fluids to drain
overboard.
• During flight the valves close, thus
preventing any air losses from the cabin
area.
• One of the above valves uses a rubber seal, while
the other uses a spring seal.
• You should also note the use of a levelling
compound, normally a rubberised sealant which
fills the cavity and brings the level up to the drain
hole to ensure all fluids drain out.
• This type of valve uses
cabin pressure air to
close off the drain path
by moving the plunger
down to seal the drain.
• When cabin pressure
falls, the spring assists
the valve to open and
drain any fluid to
atmosphere.
• To enable external drains to function
correctly, some means must be provided
within the airframe structure to ensure that
all fluids are directed towards the external
drain points, this is achieved by using
internal paths and drain holes.

• The internal structure is provided with tubes

channels, dams and drain holes to direct the
flow of fluid towards external drain points.
• A typical example of this would be holes
drilled in the stringers to allow the flow of
fluid to the drain.

• Other methods of draining are shown in the

next slide where drain tubes remove the
fluid from the pressure cabin and direct
them through tubes in the wing to the body
fairing and dump the fluids overboard.
 LIGHTENING STRIKES
• Lightening is the discharge of electricity
between highly charged cloud formations or
the cloud formation and the ground.
• If an aircraft were to be struck by either
type of lightening, it would result in very
high voltages being passed through the
structure.
• All separate parts of the structure are
electrically bonded together to direct the
lightening strike away from sensitive parts
of the airframe such as fuel tanks or flying
controls.

• Lightening strikes may have two effects on

an aircraft:-
– Strike damage
– Static discharge damage
 STRIKE DAMAGE
• This is the point where the charge enters the
aircraft.
• Strike damage is generally found at the wing tips
and other extremities of the structure.
• It is normally in the form of small circular holes in
the exterior skin, either in clusters or spread out
over a wide area and often shows signs of
discolouration, blisters on radomes and cracks in
glass fibre.
 STATIC DISCHARGE
• This is the point where the charge leaves the
aircraft.
• Static discharge damage is in the form of localised
pitting and burning at trailing edges.
• Because of the costs involved in replacing entire
control surfaces through discharge, manufacturers
place “static wicks” at known discharge points.
• The replacement of a static wick over an entire
control surface is less costly and less time
consuming.
 INSPECTION
• Since lightening and turbulence both occur
in thunderstorms, an inspection for
lightening damage will often be carried out
following a report of flight through severe
turbulence.
• The areas stated in the manufacturers
guidelines should be examined for signs of
strike or static discharge damage.
• Bonding strips and static discharge wicks
should be examined for burning and
disintegration.
• All control surfaces including flaps, spoilers
and tabs should be inspected for damage at
their hinge bearings.
• Unsatisfactory bonding may have allowed
static discharge and tracking across the
bearings, causing burning, break-up or
seizure.
• A check for roughness and control surface
resistance to movement at each bearing will
usually indicate damage at such points.

• In addition, the following inspections

should be carried out:-
• Examination of engine cowlings for signs
of burning or pitting.

• Examination of fuselage skin and rivets

generally for signs of burning and pitting.

• If the landing gear was extended at the time

of strike, examine the lower parts for static
discharge damage and also check for
residual magnetism.
• The inspections outlined should be followed
by functional checks of the radio and radar
equipment, instruments, compasses,
electrical circuit and flying controls, in
accordance with the relevant chapters of the
approved maintenance manual.

• On some aircraft a bonding resistance check

on radomes may also be specified.
 FLIGHT THROUGH SEVERE
TURBULANCE
• If an aircraft has flown through conditions of
severe turbulence, the severity may be difficult to
establish.
• An indication may be found in the accelerometer
or fatigue meter fitted to some aircraft.
• However, these instruments are designed to record
steady loads and force peaks and recorded data
through turbulence may be exaggerated due to
instrument inertia and should not be taken as
actual loads
• Generally if a reading that exceeds –0.5g
and +2.5g is recorded on a transport
aircraft, then some damage may be found.

• With other types of aircraft (e.g.. Aerobatic,

semi-aerobatic), accelerometers and fatigue
meters are seldom fitted and reported.

• In this instance flight through severe

turbulence should always be investigated.
• Severe turbulence may cause excessive
vertical or lateral forces on the aircraft
structure and the effects may be increased
by the inertia of heavy components such as
engines, fuel tanks, water tanks and cargo.
• Damage may be expected at main assembly
points such as the wing-to-fuselage joints,
tail-to-fuselage joints and engine
mountings.
• Skin wrinkles, pulled rivets or visible
distortion may also be evident.
 AIRCRAFT GROUNDING
• The most common type of ground used at
all principal airports is the grid system, in
which any number of individual grounds
are linked to a common ground.
• Should a grid system not be available, then
an individual ground will be used.
• If a grid system is employed, it must be of
an approved type.
 WARNING!!
• Do not use head-sets or handle electrical
connections to the aircraft during severe
electrical disturbances since YOU MAY
BECOME A GROUND CONNECTION
YOURSELF!!
• Static grounding of aircraft is achieved by
attaching approved grounding cables to
specified locations on the landing gear
assemblies.
• The exact locations will be specified in the
aircraft maintenance manual, Chapter 20
(ATA system).