GRAVITY METHOD

INTRODUCTION
Itis a geophysical technique that measures differences
in the earth’s gravitational field at specific locations.
The success of the gravity method depends on the
different earth materials having different bulk densities
(mass) that produce variations in the gravitational field.
Differences in rock density produce small changes in the
Earth’s gravity field that can be measured using portable
instruments known as gravity meters or gravimeters.
g=GM/R2

M=d*V
Basic theory:

The basis on which the gravity method depends is encapsulated

in two laws derived by Newton,
namely his Universal Law of gravitation, and his Second Law of
Motion.
Gravity units:

The normal value of g at the Earth’s surface is 980 cm/s2.

In honour of Galileo, the c.g.s. unit of acceleration due to
gravity (1 cm/s2) is Gal. Modern gravity meters
(gravimeters) can measure extremely small variations in
acceleration due to gravity, typically 1 part in 109. The
sensitivity of modern instruments is about ten parts per
million. Such small numbers have resulted in sub-units
being used such as the:

 milliGal (1 mGal = 10-3 Gal);

 microGal (1 μGal = 10-6 Gal); and
 1 gravity unit = 1 g.u. =0.1 mGal [10 gu =1 mGal]
 Concepts Gravity Survey
 Measurements of the gravitational field at a
series of different locations over an area of
interest.
The objective in exploration work is to
associate variations with differences in the
distribution of densities and hence rock types.
The primary goal of studying detailed gravity
data is to provide a better understanding of
the subsurface geology.
Advantages:

The gravity method is a relatively cheap, non-

invasive, non- destructive method.
Used as a reconnaissance tool in oil exploration.
It is also passive – that is, no energy need be put
into the ground in order to acquire data;
thus, the method is well suited to a populated
setting such as urban areas and a remote setting
such as Mars and the Moon.
Applications
Hydrocarbon exploration
 Regional geological studies
 Isostatic compensation determination
 Exploration for, and mass estimation of, mineral deposits
 Detection of sub-surface cavities (microgravity)
 Location of buried rock-valleys
 Determination of glacier thickness
 Tidal oscillations
 Archaeogeophysics (micro-gravity); e.g. location of tombs
 Shape of the earths (geodesy)
 Military (especially for missile trajectories)
 Monitoring volcanoes.
 Methodology
1. Identification of target
2. Choosing survey parameters for the target
- base stations
- general orientation
- station spacing
3. Selecting placement of stations
4. Station setup (elevation and position measurements and
instrument calibration)
5. Data acquisition
6. Data processing (gravity reduction/correction)
7. Interpretation
Data Acquisition
1. Measure a base station
2. Measure more stations
3. Re-measure the base station
approximately every two hours
4. Record data Measure
 Gravity data acquisition
 Gravity data acquisition is a relatively simple task that can be performed by one
person. However, two people are usually necessary to determine the location
(latitude, longitude and elevation) of the gravity stations.
 In order to detect a target (e.g., a dense body or fault), gravity readings must be
taken along traverses that cross the location of the target.
 Surveys are conducted by taking gravity readings at regular intervals along a
traverse .
 Expected size of the target will determine the distance between readings (station
spacing), with larger station separations for large target and small separations for
small ones.
 However, in order to take into account the expected drift of the instrument, one
station (a local base station) must be located and has to be remeasured every half to
1 hour or so to obtain the natural drift of the instrument. These repeated readings
are performed because even the most stable gravity meter will have their readings
drift with time due to elastic creep within the meter‟s springs and also to help
remove the gravitational effects of the earth tides readings.
 Since gravity decreases as elevation increases, the elevation of each station has to
be measured. Readings are taken by placing the instrument on the ground and
levelling it. This may be automatic with some instruments.
Passive - gravity measurement
Instrumentation :

There are two kinds of gravity-meters:

Absolute: An absolute gravimeter

measures the actual value of g
Relative: devices that measure differences
in gravity from station to station.
Measuring equipment
Falling bodies - directly computing the acceleration of a body
undergoing free-fall drop by carefully measuring distance and
time as the body falls; absolute

Pendulum - the gravitational acceleration is estimated by

measuring the period oscillation of a pendulum; absolute

Torsion Balance; absolute

Gravimeters - are basically spring balances carrying a constant

mass. Variations in the weight of the mass caused by variations in
gravity cause the length of the spring to vary and give a measure
of the change in gravity; absolute, relative
The Pendulum:
The gravity value may be
determined approximately by
noting its length and the period
of one oscillation.
Pendulum-Based Gravity Meters

Gravity first measured using a pendulum by Pierre

Bouguer in 1749. Method commonly used up to
1930s in hydrocarbon exploration.

Gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the

period of oscilation, T, of a swinging pendulum:
where L is length of pendulum.
If pendulum swung under identical conditions at two
locations, relative change in g can be found:
 Torsion Balance
 The torsion is a highly sensitive instrument
for measuring the gradient of gravity and
also the horizontal directive tendency
(curvature difference) of the gravitational
field.
 The instrument consists of two equal
masses attached to a beam which is
suspended by means of a torsion fibre. The
masses are fixed at different heights.
 The beam of the torsion balance will rotate
when a differential horizontal force acts on
the two masses.
 The extent of this rotation depends upon
the differences in the horizontal
components at the two ends and the torque
of the fibre which gives an opposing force
proportional to the angle of rotation.
 By noting the angle of rotation in different
azimuths one can obtain the direction and
magnitude of the horizontal gradient of
gravity and the curvature difference.
Gravimeter:
A gravity meter or gravimeter measures the variations
in the earth's gravitational field. The variations in
gravity are due to lateral changes in the density of the
subsurface rocks in the vicinity of the measuring
point. Because the density variations are very small
and uniform, the gravimeters have to be very
sensitive.
 There have been a dozen or more types of
gravimeters, each differing from the other in the
design of the spring, the method of magnifying the
displacements of the mass, the manner of temperature
control etc.
Types:-

Static or Stable type Gravimeters

Astatic or Unstable type Gravimeters

 Stable Gravimeters

 Stable gravimeters consist of a heavy mass which is attached

rigidly to an elastic spring and the minute displacement of the
mass by the stretch or the contraction of the spring gives a
measure of the gravity variation.
 The displacement of the mass is magnified and the difference
in the readings taken at two stations will be proportional to
the difference in gravity values at two places.

Askania Gravimeter
 Beam is pivoted on main spring. A beam of light is reflected
from the mass to a photoelectric cell. Deflection of mass,
displaces light beam and changes voltage in circuit.
 Retensioning auxiliary spring restores beam tonull position,
i.e. same position at which all measurements made.
 Stable Gravimeters Using Electrical Amplification

 Some gravimeters, including the common Scintrex CG-3, use the

small extension of the mass to change the capcitance in an electric
circuit.

Boliden Gravimeter
 Mass is in form of a bobbin with two metal plates suspended between
two other metal plates.
 Change in gravity causes mass to move and changes capacitance
between top plates -- detected by tuned circuit.
 Mass returned to null position by adjusting DC current connected two
lower plates—mass supported by electrostatic repulsion.

Scinntrex CG-3 Gravimeter

 CG-3 operates on same principle, but uses feedback circuit to control
current to plates that restores mass to null position.
 Unstable (Astatic) Gravimeters
 Unstable gravimeters
 There are several gravity meter manufacturers
where the accuracies of these meters can vary
greatly. The common gravimeters on the market
are the, La Coste Romberg gravimeter and the
Worden gravimeter.

 zerolength spring: A zero-length spring is one in

which the tension is proportional to the actual
length of the spring, i. e. if all the external forces
were removed the spring would collapse to zero
length.
 La Coste Romberg gravimeter
 The spring is attached at its upper end to a vertical
support at C and its upper end to a point B on the
beam AB.
 This beam itself is pivoted to the vertical support at A
and a mass M is attached at the free end of the beam.
 The spring is so wound that it extension is equal to
the distance between the points where its ends are
attached. This type of spring is said to have initial C
zero length; that is, if the initial length is defined as
the actual physical length minus elongation.
 The arrangement of the spring, the beam and the mass
is made in such a way that the equilibrium becomes B
unstable, providing high sensitivity to very small
variations in gravity.
 The deflection caused by the changes in gravity will
be symmetrical about the position of euilibrium. If the A
instrument is taken over to a station with a greater or
lesser force of gravity, the readings will respectively
be increased or decreased in proportion to the change
in gravity. The adjustment screw at C helps to null
the instrument reading by varying the position of the
main spring on the vertical support.
 These instruments are enclosed in thermostat
containers for regulating the temperature.
Worden gravimeter
 The Worden Gravity Meter
is based on an elastic system
constructed of quartz.
 It is a three spring device
employing a pretension of
zero-length mainspring to
produce the necessary
sensitivity.
 The basic mass is only five
milligrams, and the moment
of inertia is very low. The
low mass, together with the
almost perfect elastic
qualities of quartz, makes
the Worden Gravity Meter a
rugged instrument.
Data processing (Reduction of gravity
data)

The magnitude of gravity depends on five factors: latitude, elevation,

topography of surrounding terrain, earth tides and density variations in the
subsurface.
Removes all effects except the near-surface density

Various reductions:-

Latitude - correction for N-S distance

Free-Air - correction for elevation above the data plane
Bouguer - correction for excess mass above the data plane
Terrain - correction for variations in topography
Tides - attraction of Sun and Moon
Eötvös - correction for moving vehicle
Isostacy - variations in crustal thickness
1. LATITUDE CORRECTION
• both rotation of the earth and its equatorial bulge
produce an increase of gravity with latitude.
• Gravity increases towards poles, so we add this
correction to our reading as we move to the equator.
Latitude correction gL is obtained by-
gL / ∆s = 0.811 sin 2ф mGal/km
ф- latitude
Theoretical value of g:
International gravity formula is

gt = 978.031 (1+ 0.005,278,895 sin 2ф + 0.000,023,462 sin 4 ф

) gal
 where Ф-latitude
2.FREE-AIR CORRECTION:
• Corrects for reduction in gravity with height.
 Often we make observations at different elevations, and we
know that gravity will decrease as we get farther from the center
of mass of the Earth. / since gravity varies inversely with the
square of distance, it is necessary to correct for changes in
elevation between stations to reduce field readings to a datum
surface.
 Therefore, we choose a reference elevation (typically sea level)
and adjust our readings to be what they would be at that
elevation.
 ∆ g FA / ∆R = 0.3086 mGal / m
 The free air correction is added to the field reading when the
station is above the datum plane and subtracted when below it.
BOUGUER CORRECTION :
The bouguer correction accounts for the attraction of
material between the station and datum plane that was
ignored in the free air correction.

 The gravity reading would be increased by the

attraction of this slab between the station and the datum.
∆g B / ∆R = 2π G σ = 0.04192 σ mGal / m
σ = slab density in gram/cc
 the Bouger correction is applied in the opposite sense
to free air, i.e., it is subtracted when the station is above
the datum & vice versa.
TERRAIN CORRECTIONS
• Bouguer correction assumes flat topography. Additional terrain
corrections must be applied where measurements near to
mountains or valleys.

• If station next to mountain, there is an upward force on

gravimeter from mountain that reduces reading. If station is next
to valley (lack of material), there is an absence of the downward
force on gravimeter assumed in Bouguer correction, which
reduces free-air anomaly too much.

 Thus both type of topographic undulations affect gravity

measurements in the same sense and TC is always positive.
Always added to the station reading.
TIDAL CORRECTIONS •Pull of Sun and
Moon large enough to affect gravity
reading. •Earth tide corrections can be
corrected by repeated readings at same
station.
  BOUGUER ANOMALY - To interpret gravity data,
one must remove all known gravitational effects not
related to the subsurface density changes.
 Bouguer anomaly gives the main end-product of
gravity data reduction which correlates with density
variation of the upper crust. - It is the difference
between the observed gravity value, (adjusted by the
algebraic sum of all necessary corrections) and of the
gravity at the base station.
 Value of bouguer anomaly:

gB = gobs – gt + (∆ gL + ∆ gFA - ∆ gB + ∆ gT)

gobs – station reading, gt – theoretical gravity

Reference spheroid: The ellipsoid is best
fitted to the overall shape of the earth which
is bulging at the equator and flattend at the
poles. The ellipsoid’s surface is smooth; it
assumes the Earth to be totally
homogeneous as if there be would no
mountains or trenches. 

But this is not true and so, the mean sea

level would not coincide with the ellipsoid's
surface. There are mountains and trenches
causing variations in local height. The geoid
accounts for this variation.
 Geoid: The Geoid is a model of the Earth’s surface that
represents the mean global sea level.  On land, the geoid
is the surface that would correspond to the water level in
imaginary canals cut through the continents.

 The geoid represents a surface on which the gravitational

field has the same value, and so is called an
equipotential surface.

 The vertical distance between the geoid and the ellipsoid

is called the geoid height.  This height can be either
negative of positive.  Differences in height between the
geoid and ellipsoid (geoid heights) range from roughly
-100 to +100 meters.
 The geoid is defined as the surface of the earth's gravity
field, which approximates mean sea level.
processing…..
 Regional and residual separation :
 Usually in gravity surveying it is the local anomalies
that are of prime interest.
 Even though, we may only be interested in the mass
distribution of rocks in the upper 10 km of the crust,
measured gravity data includes the response of deep
sources also.
 How do one isolate the response from sources within
his volume of interest?
 Large, deep bodies give rise to broad (long
wavelength), low amplitude anomalies, while small,
Shallow bodies causes narrow (short wavelength),
sharp anomalies.
Regional residual separation…..

The long wavelength anomalies due to deep

density contrast are called regional anomalies.
The gravity field , after near surface noise and
regional have been removed is called residual.
Short wavelength residual anomalies are due to
shallow anomalous masses that may be of
interested for commercial exploitation.
Residualizing can be thought of as predicting the
values expected from deep features and then
subtracting them from observed values, so as to
leave the shallower effect.
 Gravity Anomaly map
 After applying all the corrections, the reduced gravity
value are contoured connecting the points of equal
value. Such a map is called the Bouguer anomaly map.
 This anomaly map represents the mass excesses or
deficiencies at various points in the area.
 The accuracy of anomaly map depends on:

I. The precision in obtaining the elevations of the

stations and the fixation of their locations
II. The performance of the gravimeter used
III. The correctness of the density factor for reduction of
the Bouguer and the terrain effects.
A gravity anomaly map generally indicates
lateral changes in density of the subsurface
rock formations. The variations of density in
the vertical direction, i.e., depth, cannot be
predicted directly from data obtained in
surface measurements.
Gravity anomaly maps and profiles may be
interpretated quantitatively to obtain
informations about the size and depth of a
body causing an anomaly.