Geophysics Gravity

EBS 329 : Geofizik Carigali
SURVEI GRAVITI (Gravity Surveying)

Introduction
Gravity surveys measure the acceleration due to gravity, g. Average value of g at

Earth’s surface is 9.80 ms-2.
Gravitational attraction depends on density of underlying rocks, so value of g varies

across surface of Earth.
Density, ρ, is physical parameter to which gravity surveys are sensitive.
Examples
• Micro-gravity: location of subsurface cavities, location of tombs (low density

of air relative to soil/rock)
• Small scale: mapping bedrock topography (high density bedrock relative to

soil), mineral exploration (high density massive ore body relative to host rock)
• Medium scale: location of salt domes in oil exploration (low density salt
relative to sediments)
• Large scale: estimation of crustal thickness (low density crust over higher
density mantle)
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Gravity surveying is based on Isaac Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation,

described in Principia Mathematica in 1687.
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation
The force of attraction between two bodies of known mass is directly proportional to
the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
where M and m are the masses of the two bodies, r the distance separating them,
and G=6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2 is the gravitational constant.
Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …1/36

On the Earth:
For a mass on the surface of a uniform spherical Earth of mass M and radius R, the
gravitational attraction on a small mass m is given by:
g m is the weight of the mass, and g is the acceleration due to gravity, or just
gravity. g = 9.80 ms-2 on average.
Units of Gravity
Galileo made the first measurement of the acceleration due to gravity by dropping
objects from the leaning tower of Pisa.
• In honour of Galileo, the c.g.s. unit of gravity is called the Gal.
1 Gal = 1 cm s-2
Modern gravity meters are extremely sensitive and can measure g to within 1 part in
109. (Equivalent to measuring the distance from the Earth to the Moon to within 1
metre).
• So the c.g.s unit commonly used in gravity measurement is the milliGal:
1 mGal = 10-3 Gal = 10-3 cm s-2
• In m.k.s. SI units, gravity is commonly measured in µm s-2 or g.u. (gravity

unit).
10 g.u. = 1 mGal

Both mGal and g.u. are commonly utilised in gravity surveying.
Example
What is the value of g in mGal?
g = 9.80 ms-2 = 9.8 x 106 µm s-2 = 9,800,000 g.u.
= 980,000 mGal
Accuracy of Gravity Measurement
On land: ± 0.1 g.u.
At sea: ± 10 g.u. (due to motion of ship)
Shape of the Earth
If the Earth were a uniform sphere g would be constant. However, gravity varies
because the density varies within the Earth and the Earth is not a perfect sphere.
• The Earth has the shape of a flattened sphere because of its rotation.
• The radius is greater at the equator because the greater centrifugal force
tends to pull material outward.
REquator = RPole + 21 km = 6378 km
• The Earth’s shape is described mathematically as an ellipse of rotation, or an

oblate spheroid.
• The topography of the Earth’s surface is also an important effect on the

measured gravity.

The Geoid
The sea-level surface, if unaffected by tides or winds, is called the geoid.
• On land, the geoid is the surface that would correspond to the water level in
imaginary canals cut through the continents.
• The geoid represents a surface on which the gravitational field has the same
value, and so is called an equipotential surface. [If the gravity value varied,
there would be a gravitational force that would force water to flow from one
place to another.]
• The force of gravitational attraction is a vector, and is everywhere

perpendicular to the geoid.
• The direction of gravity deviates from the vertical due to long wavelength
features such as the continents and to short wavelength features such as a
sulphide ore body.
• Thus the geoid deviates from the ellipse of rotation.
Geoid vs. Ellipse of Rotation
The difference between the average geoid at a latitude around the earth shows the
effect of the long wavelength variations.


There are also extremes in the geoid over India, -80 m, and the western Pacific, +60
m, relative to ellipse of rotation.
Variation of Gravity with Latitude
Gravity is 51860 g.u. greater at the poles than at the equator. The acceleration due
to gravity varies with latitude due to two effects:
1. Earth’s shape: radius is 21 km greater at equator so g is less

2. Earth’s rotation: Centrifugal acceleration reduces g. Effect is largest at
equator where rotational velocity is greatest, 1674 km/h. Zero effect at poles.

For a uniform ellipse of rotation, the measured gravity is the resultant of the
gravitational attraction vector and the centrifugal acceleration vector.
International Gravity Formula
The angle φ defines the geographic latitude.
In 1743, Clairaut deduced a formula that expressed the variation of gravity with
latitude.
This has been incorporated into the International Gravity Formula:
where g0 is the gravity at sea level at the equator and φ the latitude.
The most recent standard derived from the IGF is the 1967 Geodetic Reference
System (GRS67), given by:
where
g0 = 9.78031846 m s-2
a = 0.005278895
b = 0.000023462
Note that there is an older 1930 standard, and surveys that use this will exhibit
differences from the 1967 standard unless corrected (see Reynolds Box 2.4).

Densities of Geological Materials
We must know the density of typical subsurface rocks accurately to interpret gravity
data. The table below gives common ranges and avergae values for density in Mg
m-3.
Densities of Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks exhibit the greatest range of density variation due to factors such
as:
• Mineral composition
• Cementation
• Porosity
• Pore fluid type
Typically the contrast between adjacent sedimentary layers is less than 0.25 Mg m-
3
.
Density is increased by depth of burial:
• Sandstones and Limestones: density is increased by infilling of the pore

space, not by volume change.
• Shales: density increased by compaction, and ultimately recrystallisation into

minerals with higher densities.
Densities of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks tend to be denser than sedimentary rocks, with the density controlled
primarily by silica content:
• Mafic rocks are thus more dense than felsic.

• Ultramafic rocks are most dense
The range of density variation tends to be less than in sediments as porosities are
typically lower.
Measurement of Gravity
There are basically two type of gravity measurement:
Absolute Gravity
Measured under laboratory conditions using careful experiments employing two

possible methods:
• Falling body
• Swinging Pendulum


Used to provide absolute values of g at network of worldwide sites such as National

Physical Laboratory in UK or National Bureau of Standards in USA. (International
Gravity Standardisation Net 1971, IGSN 71).
Relative Gravity
In most applications, only the variation of gravity relative to a base station (which
can often be related to IGSN 71) is necessary.
Gravity readings are recorded at secondary stations such that the difference relative
to the base station is well known.
The spacing of gravity stations varies:
• 2-3 per km2 for regional surveys

• 8-10 per km2 for hydrocarbon exploration
• 5-50 m grid for high resolution work, e.g. archeology
• 0.5 m for microgravity work
Accuracy
On land, achieving an accuracy of ±0.1 mGal (or 1g.u.) requires that:
• latitudinal position be known to ±10 m

• elevation above mean sea level, i.e. geoid, be known to ±1 cm
Many different instruments for measuring relative gravity
Pendulum-Based Gravity Meters
Gravity first measured using a pendulum by Pierre Bouguer in 1749. Method

commonly used up to 1930s in hydrocarbon exploration.
Period of a Pendulum
Gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the period of oscilation, T, of a

swinging pendulum:
where L is length of pendulum.
If pendulum swung under identical conditions at two locations, relative change in g

can be found:

Spring-Based Gravimeters
Gravimeters, essentially a mass suspended from a sophisicated spring balance,

have been used to measure relative gravity since 1930s.
As weight of mass (mass x gravity) increases, the spring is stretched.
Hooke’s Law
Amount of extension of spring, δl, is proportional to extending force.
In gravimetry, extending force is change in gravity, δg, and spring constant, κ, is

known:
Variations in g are small, so need to measure very small values of extension. For 30
cm long spring, change in length is ~3x10-8m (30 nm, which is less than wavelength
of light at ~500 nm).
Mechanism for amplifying spring extension required so it can be measured.
Stable Gravimeters
Stable gravimeters consist of a mass at end of a beam, which pivots on a fulcrum,

and is balanced by a tensioned spring.

Changes in gravity affect weight of mass, which is balanced by restoring force of

spring.
Askania Gravimeter
Beam is pivoted on main spring. A beam of light is reflected from the mass to a
photoelectric cell. Deflection of mass, displaces light beam and changes voltage in
circuit.
Retensioning auxiliary spring restores beam to null position, i.e. same position at
which all measurements made.
Stable Gravimeters Using Electrical Amplification
Some gravimeters, including the common Scintrex CG-3, use the small extension of
the mass to change the capcitance in an electric circuit.
Boliden Gravimeter
Mass is in form of a bobbin with two metal plates suspended between two other
metal plates.
• Change in gravity causes mass to move and changes capacitance between

top plates -- detected by tuned circuit.
• Mass returned to null position by adjusting DC current connected two lower

plates—mass supported by electrostatic repulsion.

Scinntrex CG-3 Gravimeter
CG-3 operates on same principle, but uses feedback circuit to control current to
plates that restores mass to null position.
Unstable (Astatic) Gravimeters
In a stable system, mass will return to equilibrium position after small disturbance. In
unstable system, mass continues to move.
Example
• Stable: pencil lying flat on table. Lift up one end; it falls back flat
• Unstable: Pencil standing on end. Push it; it falls over.
Unstable gravimeters use mechanical instability to exaggerate small movement due

to change in gravity.
• Horizontal hinged beam supports mass at end. Turning moment due to mass
is mglcosθ.
• Beam supported by spring connected above hinge. Turning moment due to

spring proportional to perpendicular distance d.

• Increase in gravity extends spring, but shortens d reducing increase in

restoring force and allowing greater movement (need to adjust geometry
precisely).
LaCoste-Romberg Unstable Gravimeter
• Spring is metal with high thermal conductivity to minimise effects of thermal

expansion/contraction. Thermally insulated.
• Spring is zero-length, i.e. pretensioned during manufacture so behaves as if it

would contract to zero length if tension lost.
• Zero length spring is weak, and maximises extension.
• Mass is large.
• Reading made by viewing light reflected from beam in eyepiece.
• Null position recovered by adjusting micrometer screw.
• Long length of screw means meter can read over range of 50,000 g.u.; used
for worldwide surveys. Accurate to 0.03 g.u.

Worden Unstable Gravimeter
• For thermal problem, made of quartz glass springs, rods, and fibres. (Quartz
less sensitive to heat than metal).
• Assembly housed inside vacuum flask with electrical thermostat.
• Range of instrument is 20,000 g.u. with accuracy up to 0.1 g.u., but 1 g.u.
more usual.
• Lower range means it is more commonly used for local surveys, over which g
changes less.
Shipborne Gravimeters
Static Measurement
• Use remote-controlled land instrument in waterproof housing, which is

lowered to seafloor.
• Accuracy almost as good as land, but often impractical.
Continuous Measurement
• Gravimeter mounted on gyro-stabilised horizontal platform, so meter

responds to vertical motions only.
• Horizontal motion due to yawing of ship eliminated.

• External accelerations due to waves attenuated by heavy damping of

suspension, and averaging reading over longer period than wave motion (>8
s).
• External motions can cause variations in measured gravity up to 106 g.u..

With use of platform and corrections, accuracy is ±10 g.u..
• Variation of LaCoste-Romberg often used.
Corrections to Gravity Observations
Instrument Calibration Factor
Reading on gravimeter must usually be multiplied by calibration factor to get value

of observed gravity, gobs.
Reduction to Geoid
Before interpretation, raw gravity data must be corrected to common measurement

datum such as mean sea level (geoid).
Gravity Anomaly
Difference between the observed anomaly and the value of the International Gravity
Formula, e.g. GRS67, at the same location is the Gravity Anomaly with which we
work.
Summary of Gravity Data Corrections
Several corrections must be applied to observed gravity to obtain sea level

reference and anomaly:
Instrumental Drift
Drift
Gravimeters are very sensitive instruments. Temperature changes and elastic creep
in springs cause reading to change gradually with time.

Drift is monitored by repeating reading at same station at different times of day,

perhaps every 1-2 hours, to produce a drift curve.
Instrument drift correction for each station can be estimated from drift curve.
Example
Drift curve for survey shown above. For reading taken at 12:30 hrs, observed gravity
reading should be reduced by d.
Drift values are typically < 10 gu per hour. Larger values indicate an instrument
problem.
Earth Tides
Solid Earth responds to pull of Sun and Moon just like oceans, but movement is
much less.
Pull of Sun and Moon large enough to affect gravity reading. Changes gobs with
period of 12 hours or so.

Earth tide corrections can be corrected by repeated readings at same station in

same way as instrument drift.
Correction can also be made using published tables, e.g. Tidal Gravity Corerctions
for 1991.
Latitude Correction
Gravity anomaly values obtained by subtracting theoretical value of gravity defined

by International Gravity Formula, gφ
Local Latitude Correction
Approximate correction can be applied to small-scale surveys (<100 km), not tied in
to absolute gravity network through base station readings.
• Horizontal gravity gradient determined at local base station from latitude:
gu per km
• Gravity increases towards poles, so latitude correction is more negative

towards poles (as subtracted), i.e. with northward distance in northern
hemisphere or southward distance in the southern hemisphere.
• At 51o N, local latitude correction is around 8 gu/km.
• Latitude must be known ±10 m for surveys with accuracy of ±0.1gu.

Free-air Correction
Corrects for reduction in gravity with height above geoid, irrespective of nature of
rock below.
Free-air correction is difference between gravity measured at sea level and at an

elevation, h, with no rock in between.
Free-air Correction = 3.086 g.u./m = 3.086 h g.u.
• Correction is positive above sea level (i.e. added), negative below.
• Varies slightly with latitude from 3.083 g.u./m at equator to 3.088 g.u./m at
poles.
• With usual gravimeter measurement accuracy of 0.1 g.u., elevation must be

known to within 5 cm!!!
Free Air Anomaly
Free-air Anomaly is obtained after application of latitude and free-air corrections.
• FA anomaly maps commonly used for ocean areas.
Bouguer Correction
Free-air correction takes no account of rock mass between measurement station

and sea level.
Bouguer correction, δgB, accounts for effect of rock mass by calculating extra
gravitational pull exerted by rock slab of thickness h and mean density ρ.
• Assumes flat topography. In rough areas terrain corrections required.

On land:
g.u.
where ρ is in Mg m-3 and h is in metres.
At sea:
where h is the water depth.
Bouguer Anomaly
BA is Free-air Anomaly after subtraction of Bouguer correction.
Nettleton’s method
Bouguer correction quite sensitive to value of density used.
Example
With 250 m elevation, an 0.1 Mg m-3 error in density will produce an error of 10gu.
The Bouguer Anomaly should show no correlation with topography, but an incorrect
choice of density will reflect the topography.
Nettleton developed method of calculating BA using various trial density values.

Correct density corresponds to BA correction that shows no correlation with
topography.

Elevation is 76 m (250 ft). Correct density is 2.3 Mg m-3
Terrain Corrections
Bouguer correction assumes subdued topography. Additional terrain corrections

must be applied where measurements near to mountains or valleys.
If station next to mountain, there is an upward force on gravimeter from mountain

that reduces reading.

If station is next to valley, there is an absence of the downward force on gravimeter

assumed in Bouguer correction, which reduces free-air anomaly too much.
In both cases, terrain correction is added to Bouguer Anomaly.
Example of terrain correction
a. Gravity station at elevation h above geoid

b. Infinite rock mass assumed for Bouguer correction
c. Terrain correction compensates for error A in BC and also B
Hammer Charts
Terrain corrections can be computed using transparent template, called a Hammer

Chart, which is placed over a topgraphic map.

• Chart is centred on gravity station and topography read off at centre of each
segment.
• Contribution to terrain correction is obtained from tabulated values for each

segement and then summed to obtain total correction. (See Table 2.8 in
Reynolds).
• Based on formula for gravitational attraction of cylindrical segment.
• Considered an additional part of Bouguer correction, i.e. results in Bouguer

Anomaly.
Eötvös Correction
If gravimeter is in moving vehicle such as ship or plane, it is affected by vertical

component of Coriolis acceleration, which depends on speed and travel direction of
vehicle.
gu
where φ is geographic latitude and V is vehicle speed in knots.
Two components:
• Outward acting centrifugal acceleration due to movement of vehicle over

curved surface of Earth.
• Change in centrifugal acceleration due to movement relative to Earth’s

rotational axis. If vehicle moves east, it’s rotational speed is increased; if
west, its speed is reduced.

Isostatic Correction
If no lateral density variations in Earth’s crust, Bouguer Anomaly would be the same,
i.e. Earth’s gravity at the equator at geoid.
Bouguer anomaly positive over oceans, negative over mountains.
If crust is floating on mantle like an iceberg in ocean, total mass summed over any
vertical column is the same. (Isostasy)
Airy Isostasy
Airy proposed that crust is thicker beneath mountains and thinner beneath the
oceans.
Excess mass under the oceans from a shallower, high density mantle. Mass
deficiency beneath mountains due to crustal root.
Pratt Isostasy
Pratt proposed that observation could be explained by lateral changes in density

within a uniform thickness crust.

Airy Isostatic corrections can be applied to remove these long wavelength

variations, isolating upper crustal anomalies.
Regional and Residual Anomalies
Bouguer Anomaly maps contain:
• Regional anomaly: long wavelength features due to deep crustal features

• Residual anomaly: short wavelength anomalies due to shallow structures
Residual must be separated for interpretation. Smoothed trend is fitted to BA

graphically or by computer.

Example of Bouguer Anomaly and regional field:
Interpretation of Gravity Anomalies is Non-Unique
As with interpretation of many geophysical data, interpretation of gravity is

ambiguous.
Example
Residual anomaly from a 600m radius sphere of 1.0 Mg m-3 at 3 km depth also be
produced by each of the bodies shown.

Interpretation can proceed by forward modelling or inversion methods.
Calculating Gravity Anomalies of Simple Bodies
Gravity anomaly of a body can be calculated by summing contribution of its

component elements using computer.
For simple bodies, anomaly can be calculated simply:
Sphere or Point Mass
For point mass at distance r, gravitational attraction given by:

Gravimeter only measures vertical component, so anomaly is projection onto

vertical:
Since attraction due to sphere is same as that of same mass at centre, this is
formula for anomaly of buried sphere. (3-D case)
Horizontal Cylinder
Can integrate above formula to get result for horizontal cylinder(2-D case):
where m is mass per unit length.
Gravity Anomalies of Spheres and Cylinders
Anomaly shape can be plotted using formula. Anomaly from sphere decays more
quickly than that of horizontal cylinder.
Vertical cylinder has different shape with steeper flanks:

Depth Estimation by Half-Width Method
Using the formulae for the anomalies due to various bodies, it is posible to estimate
the limiting depth of a body.
Limiting depth is maximum depth at which top of body could occur to produce
anomaly. (Body could be shallower).
Half-Width Method
Half-width, X1/2 , is the distance from the centre of an anomaly at which amplitude
has decreased to half its peak value.
If anomaly is spherical:

If anomaly is horizontal cylinder:
If anomaly is vertical cylinder:
If anomaly is thin steeply dipping sheet:
Depths are overestimates as based on centre of mass of body.
Depth Estimation by Gradient-Amplitude Method
Can obtain estimates of limiting depth from maximum slope also.
If value of maximum slope, ∆g’max , estimated:
For 3-D body:
For 2-D body:

Mass Estimation
Anomalous Mass is difference between mass of anomalous body and mass of body
replaced with host rock.
• Anomalous mass can be uniquely determined from gravity anomaly, but

important that regional be correctly removed.
• Anomaly divided into series of rings, each of which is divided into further
segments, δAi.
If ∆gi is value of residual anomaly in segment,
Total Anomalous Mass given by:
Actual mass can be determined simply from anomalous mass if densities of

anomaly and host rock are known:
where ρ1 is density of body, and ρ0 density of host rock.
• If body less dense than surrounding rock, anomalous mass will be negative,
mass deficiency.
• Important method for estimating ore reserves.
Application to Salt Domes
Average density of salt, 2.2 Mg m-3, is less than most sediments in a basin, so salt
often rises in diapir due to its bouyancy.
Makes good target for gravity surveys, and will show up as a bullseye anomaly.
Example: Mors salt dome, Denmark
Studied for radioactive waste disposal. Dots are gravity stations.

From profile across anomaly:
• Maximum amplitude of residual anomaly = 16 mGal

• Anomaly half-width= 3.7 km
Assuming salt dome represented by sphere, limiting depth, i.e. depth to centre of
mass = 4.8 km
Assuming density contrast of –0.25 Mg m-3, radius of sphere estimated at 3.8 km.
So top of salt at 1 km depth.

Best model obtained by forward modelling of gravity data:
Compare inferences from gravity with best model derived from all methods,
including seismic reflection and drilling.

Application to Massive Sulphide Exploration
Massive sulphide ore bodies have high densities due to minerals present.
Can show as gravity high in residual anomaly.
Example: Faro Pb-Zn deposit, Yukon
Gravity proved to be best geophysical technique to delimit deposit
Tonnage of 44.7 million estimated from gravity, which compares with drilling
estimate of 46.7 million.

Application to Detection of Underground Cavities
Buried cavities due to old mine workings can be a significant hazard!
Result of catastrophic failure of roof of ancient flint mine in chalk.
Cavities can be good target for micro-gravity due to high density contrast between a
void, or rubble-filled void, and host rock.
In practice, many anomalies are greater than predicted by theory.
Example: Inowroclaw, Poland
Karst caverns in subsurface composed of gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite, and

limestone. Develop towards surface and destroy buldings.
Density contrasts are around -1.8 Mg m-3 and -1.0 Mg m-3 for void and rubble-filled
void.

Rubble-filled void should not have been detectable from calculated anomaly.

Geophysics Gravity

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What is gravity surveying used to measure?

What is gravity surveying used to measure?

How does the density of underlying rocks affect gravity measurements?

How does the density of underlying rocks affect gravity measurements?

EBS 329 : Geofizik Carigali

SURVEI GRAVITI (Gravity Surveying)

Gravity surveys measure the acceleration due to gravity, g. Average value of g at

Gravitational attraction depends on density of underlying rocks, so value of g varies

Density, ρ, is physical parameter to which gravity surveys are sensitive.

• Micro-gravity: location of subsurface cavities, location of tombs (low density

• Small scale: mapping bedrock topography (high density bedrock relative to

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Gravity surveying is based on Isaac Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation,

Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …1/36

• In honour of Galileo, the c.g.s. unit of gravity is called the Gal.

• So the c.g.s unit commonly used in gravity measurement is the milliGal:

1 mGal = 10-3 Gal = 10-3 cm s-2

• In m.k.s. SI units, gravity is commonly measured in µm s-2 or g.u. (gravity

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …2/36

Both mGal and g.u. are commonly utilised in gravity surveying.

What is the value of g in mGal?

g = 9.80 ms-2 = 9.8 x 106 µm s-2 = 9,800,000 g.u.

Accuracy of Gravity Measurement

On land: ± 0.1 g.u.

At sea: ± 10 g.u. (due to motion of ship)

Shape of the Earth

REquator = RPole + 21 km = 6378 km

• The Earth’s shape is described mathematically as an ellipse of rotation, or an

• The topography of the Earth’s surface is also an important effect on the

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …3/36

The sea-level surface, if unaffected by tides or winds, is called the geoid.

• The force of gravitational attraction is a vector, and is everywhere

• Thus the geoid deviates from the ellipse of rotation.

Geoid vs. Ellipse of Rotation

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …4/36

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …5/36

Variation of Gravity with Latitude

1. Earth’s shape: radius is 21 km greater at equator so g is less

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …6/36

International Gravity Formula

The angle φ defines the geographic latitude.

This has been incorporated into the International Gravity Formula:

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …7/36

Densities of Geological Materials

Densities of Sedimentary Rocks

Density is increased by depth of burial:

• Sandstones and Limestones: density is increased by infilling of the pore

• Shales: density increased by compaction, and ultimately recrystallisation into

Densities of Igneous Rocks

• Mafic rocks are thus more dense than felsic.

There are basically two type of gravity measurement:

Measured under laboratory conditions using careful experiments employing two

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …8/36

Dr. Kamar Shah Ariffin …9/36

Used to provide absolute values of g at network of worldwide sites such as National

The spacing of gravity stations varies:

• 2-3 per km2 for regional surveys

On land, achieving an accuracy of ±0.1 mGal (or 1g.u.) requires that: