INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CHAPTER 10
HEAT TRANSFER IN ENGINES
This chapter examines the heat transfer that occurs within an
IC engine, this being extremely important for proper
operation. About one-third of the total energy must be
dissipated to the surroundings by some modes of heat
transfer. Temperatures within the combustion chamber of an
engine reach values on the order of 2700 K and up. Materials
in the engine cannot tolerate this kind of temperature and
would quickly fail if proper heat transfer did not occur.
Removing heat is highly critical in keeping an engine and
engine lubricant from thermal failure.

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1. ENERGY DISTRIBUTION
 The amount of energy (power) available for use in an engine:
W  m f QHV
where m f = fuel flow rate into the engine
QHV = heating value of the fuel

 Brake thermal efficiency gives the percentage of this total energy that is
converted to useful output at the crankshaft:
( t ) brake  W b / m f QHV c

 The rest of the energy can be divided into heat losses, parasitic loads, and
energy that is lost in the exhaust flow.
 For any engine, Power generated  W shaft  Q exhaust  Q loss  W acc

where W shaft = brake output power off of the crankshaft  25–40%.

Q exhaust = energy lost in the exhaust flow  20–45%.
Q loss = all other energy lost by the heat transfer  10–35%.
W acc = power to run engine accessories.

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1. ENERGY DISTRIBUTION (cont'd)
 For many engines, the heat losses can be subdivided:

Q loss  Q coolant  Q oil  Q ambient

Q coolant  10  30 %
Q  5  15 %
oil

Q ambient  2  10%
Wfriction  10%

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2. ENGINE TEMPERATURES

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3. HEAT TRANSFER IN INTAKE SYSTEM
 As the air-fuel mixture enters an engine through the intake system, its
temperature increases from ambient conditions to a temperature on the order
of 60oC.
 The walls of the intake manifold are hotter than the flowing gases, heating
them by convection:

Q  hA(Twall  Tgas )

where h = convection heat transfer coefficient

A = inside surface area of intake manifold

 Various methods are used to heat the manifolds. The flow passages of the
runners come in close thermal contact with the hot exhaust manifold,
others use hot coolant flow through a surrounding water jacket. Electricity is
used to heat some intake manifolds. Some systems have special localized hot
surfaces, called hot spots, in optimum locations, such as immediately after
fuel addition or at a tee where maximum convection occurs.

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4. HEAT TRANSFER IN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
 Once the air-fuel mixture is in the cylinders of an engine, the three primary
modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection, and radiation) all play an
important part for smooth steady-state operation.
 During the compression stroke, the temperature of the gas increases, and
by the time combustion starts, there is already a convective heat transfer
to the cylinder walls.
 During combustion, peak gas temperatures on the order of 3000 K occur
within the cylinders, and effective heat transfer is needed to keep the cylinder
walls from overheating. Convection and conduction are the main heat
transfer modes to remove energy from the combustion chamber and keep
the cylinder walls from melting.

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4. HEAT TRANSFER IN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
(cont'd)
 Heat transfer per unit surface area:
q  Q / A  (Tg  Tc ) /[ (1 / hg )  ( x / k )  (1 / hc )] (1)

where Tg = gas temperature in the combustion chamber

Tc = coolant temperature
hg = convection heat transfer coefficient on the gas side
hc = convection heat transfer coefficient on the coolant side
x = thickness of the combustion chamber wall
k = thermal conductivity of the cylinder wall

 Convection heat transfer on the inside surface of the cylinder:

q  Q / A  hg (Tg  Tw ) (2)

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4. HEAT TRANSFER IN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
(cont'd)
 Reynolds number is defined as:
Re  [( m a  m f ) B ] / ( A p  g )

where m a = mass flow rate of air into the cylinder

m f = mass flow rate of fuel into the cylinder
B = bore
Ap = area of piston face
g = dynamic viscosity of gas in the cylinder

 Nusselt number for the inside of the combustion chamber can be defined as:
Nu  hg B / k g  C1 (Re) C 2

where C1 and C2 = constant

kg = thermal conductivity of cylinder gas
hg = average value of the convection heat transfer coefficient to
be used in Eqs. (1) and (2).

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4. HEAT TRANSFER IN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
(cont'd)
 Radiation heat transfer between cylinder gas and the combustion chamber
wall:
q  Q / A  [ (Tg4  Tw4 )] /{[ (1   g ) /  g ]  (1 / F1 2 )  [ (1   w ) /  w ]
where Tg = gas temperature
Tw = wall temperature
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
g = emissivity of gas
w = emissivity of wall
F1–2 = view factor between gas and wall

 Even though gas temperatures are very high, radiation to the walls only
amounts to about 10% of the total heat transfer in SI engines.

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Example 1
A 3.0 liter, 5-cylinder, 4-stroke cycle SI engine, with a volumetric efficiency of
82%, operates at 3000 RPM using gasoline with an equivalence ratio of 1.1. Bore
and stroke are related as S = 1.08 B. At a certain point in the engine cycle, the
gas temperature in the combustion chamber is Tg = 2100 oC while the cylinder
wall temperature is Tw = 190 oC.

Calculate the approximate convection heat transfer rate to the cylinder wall at this
instant.

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Example 1 (cont'd)
Bore and stroke
Vd  600 cm 3  ( / 4) B 2 S  ( / 4) B 2 (1.08 B )
 B  8.91 cm
 S  1.08 B  9.62 cm

The area of one piston face:

Ap  ( / 4) B 2  ( / 4)(0.0891 m ) 2  0.006235 m 2

Mass flow rate of air into one cylinder of the engine:

m a   v  aVd N / n
 (0.82)(1.181 kg/m 3 )(0.0006 m 3 )(3000/60 rev/sec)/(2 rev/cycle)
 0.01453 kg/sec
The mass flow rate of fuel into one cylinder of the engine:
m f  m a /( AF) act  m a /[( AF) stoich /  ]
 (0.01453 kg/sec ) /[(14.6) /(1.1)]  0.00109 kg/sec

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Example 1 (cont'd)
Reynolds number:
Re  [ (m a  m f ) B] /( Ap  g )
 {[( 0.01453  0.00109 ) kg/sec ](0.0891 m )}
/[( 0.006235 m 2 )(5.21 10  5 kg/m  sec)
 4284
Viscosity g =5.2110–5 kg/m-sec and thermal conductivity kg = 0.09 W/mK of gas
(air) at average temperature of 1145 oC.

Nusselt number (suggest C1 = 0.035 and C2 = 0.8):

Nu  hg B / k g  C1 (Re) C 2  hg (0.0891 m ) /( 0.09 W/m  K )  (0.035)( 4284 ) 0.8
 hg  28.44 W/m 2  K

Convection heat transfer rate at combustion wall:

q  hg (Tg  Tw )
 ( 28.44 W/m 2  K )(2373  463) K  54,320 W/m 2  54.32 kW/m 2

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 5. HEAT TRANSFER IN EXHAUST SYSTEM
 To calculate heat losses in an exhaust
pipe, normal internal convection flow
models can be used with one major
modification: Due to the pulsing cyclic
flow, the Nusselt number is about
twice that which would be predicted
for the same mass flow in the same
pipe at steady flow conditions.

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Example 2
On the engine in Example 1, the exhaust manifold and pipe leading from the
engine to the catalytic converter can be approximated as a 1.8-m length of pipe
with ID = 6.0 cm and OD = 6.5 cm. Volumetric efficiency of the engine at 3600
RPM is  = 93%, the air-fuel ratio AF = 15:1, and the average wall temperature
of the exhaust pipe is 200 oC.

Calculate the approximate temperature of the exhaust gas entering the catalytic
converter.

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Example 2 (cont'd)
From Example 1, the temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the engine is T1 =
756 K = 483 oC.
As a first approximation, it will be assumed that the temperature loss in the
exhaust pipe is T = 100 K, so T2 = 656 K = 383 oC.
As in air-standard analysis, air property values are used to approximate exhaust
gas.
Average bulk temperature of gas is:
Tbulk  (T1  T2 ) / 2  (756  656 ) / 2  706 K  433 o C

Air property value, evaluated at average bulk temperature:

density  =0.499 kg/m3

kinematic viscosity  = 6.72  10–5 m2/sec
thermal conductivity k = 0.0526 W/mK
specific heat cp = 1076 J/kgK
Prandtl number Pr = 0.684

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Example 2 (cont'd)
Mass flow rate of exhaust equals air plus fuel:
m ex  [ v  aVd N / n ](16 / 15)
 [(0.93)(1.181 kg/m 3 )(0.0064 m 3 )(3600/60 rev/sec)/(2 rev/cycle)](16/15)
 0.225 kg/sec

Average flow velocity:

u  m ex / A  (0.225 kg/sec ) /[(0.499 kg/m 3 )( / 4)(0.06 m ) 2 ]  159.5 m/sec

Reynolds number for the flow in a pipe:

Re  ud /  (159.5 m/sec )(0.06 m ) /( 6.72  10 5 m 2 /sec )  142,411

Using the Dittus-Boelter equation for the Nusselt number of interior turbulent flow
in a pipe,
Nu  0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.3  (0.023)(142,411) 0.8 (0.684) 0.3  272
This is multiplied by 2 because of the pulsed exhaust flow: Nu  ( 2)(272 )  544

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Example 2 (cont'd)
Convection heat transfer coefficient:
h  Nu ( k / d )  (544)(0.0526 W/m  K) / (0.06 m)  477 W/m 2  K

Convection heat transfer from exhaust gas to pipe walls:

Q  hA(Tbulk  Twall )
 ( 477 W/m 2  K )[ (0.06 m )(1.8 m )](706  473) K  37,709 W

Temperature drop in the exhaust flow between the engine and catalytic converter:
T  Q / m ex c p  (37,709 W ) /[(0.225 kg/sec )(1076 J/kg  K )]  156 K

Temperature of exhaust gas entering the catalytic converter:

T2  T1  T  756 K  156 K  600 K  327 o C

A second iteration uses these values for T2 and T in the calculations. This gives
the temperature of the exhaust gas entering the catalytic converter:
T  128o C T2  628 K  355 o C

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6. EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON
HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat transfer within engines depends on so many different variables that it is
difficult to correlate one engine with another. These variables include the air-
fuel ratio, speed, load, brake mean effective pressure, spark timing,
compression ratio, materials, and size.

Engine Size
 If two geometrically similar engines are run at the same speed, and similar
temperature, AF, fuel, etc., the larger engine will have a greater absolute heat
loss but will be more thermal efficient.
 If the temperatures and materials of both engines are the same, heat loss
fluxes to the surroundings per unit area will be about the same, but the
absolute heat loss of the larger engine will be greater due to larger surface
areas.

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6. EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON
HEAT TRANSFER (cont'd)
Engine Speed
 As engine speed is increased,
gas flow velocity into and out
of the engine goes up, with a
resulting rise in turbulence and
convection heat transfer
coefficients. This increases
heat transfer occurring during
the intake and exhaust strokes
and even during the early part
of the compression stroke.

 Convection are fairly independent of engine speed during combustion

and power stroke, because gas velocities within the cylinder are fairly
independent of engine speed, being instead controlled by swirl, squish, and
combustion motion.
 Radiation, which is only important during this portion of the cycle, is also
independent of speed.
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6. EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON
HEAT TRANSFER (cont'd)
Engine Speed (cont'd)
 Because the time of the cycle is less at higher speed, less heat transfer per
cycle (kJ/cycle) occurs. This gives the engine a higher thermal efficiency at
higher speed.
 Heat transfer to the engine coolant increases with higher speed:

Q  hA(Tw  Tc )

where h = convection heat transfer coefficient, which remains about

constant
A = surface area, which remains constant
Tw = wall temperature, which increases with speed
Tc = coolant temperature, which remains about constant

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6. EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON
HEAT TRANSFER (cont'd)
Load
 As the load on an engine is increased, the throttle must be further opened to
keep the engine speed constant. This causes less pressure drop across the
throttle and higher pressure and density in the intake system. Heat
transfer within the engine goes up by Q  hAT
where h = convection heat transfer coefficient
A = surface area at any point
T = temperature difference at that point
 The heat transfer coefficient is related to Reynolds number by h  Re C , where
C is a constant, usually on the order of 0.8.

Spark Timing
 More power and higher temperatures are generated when the spark setting is
set to give maximum pressure and temperature at about 5o to 10o aTDC. With
spark timing set either too early or too late, combustion efficiency and
average temperatures will be lower.

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6. EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON
HEAT TRANSFER (cont'd)
Fuel Equivalence Ratio
 In an SI engine, maximum power is obtained with an equivalence ratio of
about  = 1.1. This is also when the greatest heat losses will occur, with lower
losses when the engine runs either leaner or richer.

Notes: If the equivalence ratio is equal to one, the combustion is stoichiometric. If it is

< 1, the combustion is lean with excess air, and if it is >1, the combustion is rich with
incomplete combustion.

Evaporative Cooling—Water Injection

 As fuel is vaporized during intake and start of compression, evaporative
cooling lowers the intake temperature and raises intake density. This
increases the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
 Water can be added by one of the three methods: (1) injection of water into
the incoming air; (2) emulsifying water with the fuel; (3) using high humidity
inlet air.

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Example 3
A large supercharged aircraft engine generates 900 kW when operating with air
and isooctane at a fuel equivalence ratio  = 1.05. After supercharging and fuel
addition, air enters the engine at 65 oC.
Water injection is added to the engine, with 0.25 kg of water injected for each kg
of fuel used. Let the heat of vaporization of water hfg = 2350 kJ/kg.

Calculate the approximate inlet air temperature when water injection is used.

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Example 3 (cont'd)
The reaction for stoichiometric combustion:
C8H18 + 12.5 (O2 + 3.76 N2)  8 CO2 + 9 H2O + 12.5(3.76) N2

At an equivalence ratio of 1.05:

C8H18 + (12.5/1.05) (O2 + 3.76 N2)  (8/1.05) CO2 + (9/1.05) H2O + 0.05 C8H18 +
(12.5/1.05)(3.76) N2

For one mole of fuel, the mass of fuel is:

m f  N f M f  (1 kgmole )(114 kg/kgmole )  114 kg

The mass of water injection is:

m w  ( 0.25)(114 )  28 .5 kg

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Example 3 (cont'd)
Evaporative cooling from water is:

m w h fg  N a M a c p T
( 28 .5 kg )( 2350 kJ/kg )  [(12 .5 / 1.05)( 4.76 ) kgmoles ]
 ( 29 kg/kgmole )(1.005 kJ/kg  K ) T
 T  41o C

Temperature of the air entering the engine after water evaporation is:

Ta  65  41  24 o C

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6. EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON
HEAT TRANSFER (cont'd)
Inlet Air Temperature
 Increasing inlet air temperature to an engine results in a temperature
increase over the entire cycle, with a resulting increase in heat losses.
Increasing cycle temperatures also increases the chance of knock.
Turbocharged or supercharged engines generally have higher inlet air
temperatures due to compressive heating. Many systems have aftercooling
to reduce air temperature before it enters the engine cylinders.

Coolant Temperature
 Increasing the coolant temperature of an engine (hotter thermostat) results in
higher temperatures of all cooled components.

Engine Materials
 Different materials used in the manufacture of cylinder and piston components
result in different operating temperatures.

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6. EFFECT OF ENGINE OPERATING VARIABLES ON
HEAT TRANSFER (cont'd)
Compression Ratio
 Changing the compression ratio of an engine changes the heat transfer to the
coolant very little.

Knock
 When knock occurs, the temperature and pressure are raised in very
localized spots within the combustion chamber. This rise in local temperature
can be very severe and, in extreme cases, can cause surface damage to
pistons and valves.

Swirl and Squish

 Higher swirl and squish velocities result in a higher convection heat transfer
coefficient within the cylinder. This results in better heat transfer to the walls.

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7. AIR-COOLED ENGINES
 Many small engines and some medium-sized engines are air cooled.
 Air-cooled engines rely on a flow of air across their external surfaces to
remove the necessary heat to keep them from overheating.
 It is more difficult to get uniform cooling of cylinders on air-cooled engines
than on liquid-cooled engines. The flow of liquid coolants can be better
controlled and ducted to the hot spots where maximum cooling is needed.
Liquid coolants also have better thermal properties than air.
 When compared with liquid-cooled engines, air-cooled engines have the
following advantages: (1) lighter weight, (2) less costly, (3) no coolant system
failures (e.g., water pump, hoses), (4) no engine freeze-ups, and (5) faster
engine warmup. Disadvantages: (1) less efficient, (2) noisier, and (3) need a
directed air flow and finned surfaces.

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8. LIQUID-COOLED ENGINES
 The engine block of a water-cooled engine is surrounded with a water
jacket through which coolant liquid flows.
 Most engines use a mixture of water and ethylene glycol, which has the
heat transfer advantages of water but improves on some of the physical
properties.

 Ethylene glycol (C2H6O2),

often called antifreeze,
acts as a rust inhibitor and
a lubricant for the water
pump. When added to
water, it lowers the
freezing temperature and
raises the boiling
temperature.

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8. LIQUID-COOLED ENGINES

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8. LIQUID-COOLED ENGINES

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 9. OIL AS A COOLANT
 The oil used to lubricate an engine in
operation also helps to cool the
engine.
 To help cool the piston face, one of the
hottest surfaces in the engine, the
back surface of the piston crown, is
subjected to a flow of oil. This is done
by spraying the oil in pressurized
systems or by splash in non-
pressurized systems.

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APPENDIX

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