EEE401: Control System

Design
Lesson I: Introduction
Engr. M. Azharul Haque
Introduction
• Electrical Engineering can be defined as the branch of
engineering science which deals with the study and application
of electricity, electromagnetism, electronics and electronic
equipment for power generation and distribution and also for
the control of machines and communication system.
• Electrical engineering covers a range of subtopics including
power, electronics, control systems, signal processing and
telecommunications.
• The art of automatic control dominates the modern way of life
and can employ either in ensuring peace or destruction of the
world.
 Introduction (Cont…)
• In our practical life, it is often needed to maintain a
physical quantity, such as pressure, flow or temperature
at a desired level during a technical process. These
quantities can be kept at desired level by means of a
device or mechanism, what we call control and the
controlled quantity is known as controlled variable.
• Hence, control means, to maintain or alter any quantity
of interest in a machine or mechanism in a desired
manner.
OR
• A system which regulates the output quantity is called a
control system.
 Introduction (Cont…)
• The situation of being under the regulation, domination, or
command of another: The car is out of control.
– Check or restraint: Her anger is under control.
• A device for regulating and guiding a machine, such as a motor
or an airplane is known as control.
– Control is a coordinated arrangement of such devices.
Verb:
• To command, direct, or rule: to control a country
• To check, limit, curb, or regulate; restrain: to control one's
emotions ; to control a fire
• To regulate or operate (a machine)
Introduction (Cont…)
• To maintain a physical quantity, such as pressure, flow
or temperature at a desired level during a technical
process, this quantity can be controlled either by
means of open loop control or closed loop control.
• Control means any quantity of interest in a machine
or mechanism to be maintained or altered in
accordance with desired manner.
• A system which regulates the output quantity is called
a control system.
 What is a System?
• Systems are sets of components, physical or otherwise, which
are connected in such a manner as to form and act as a single
entity or unit to achieve a goal or objective. So, a system
comprises of several component that work together for a
specific task.
• Control is the effort to make systems act as desired. A process
is the action of a system or alternatively, a system in action.
• A system is defined as a combination of components which act
together to achieve a desired goal or objective.
• A system can be mechanical, electrical, fluid, chemical, financial
and even biological, and the mathematical modeling, analysis
and controller design shall be done using control theory in one
or many of the time, frequency and complex-s domains
depending on the nature of the control system design problem.
Control System
• A control system is a set of devices to manage,
command, direct or regulate the behavior of
other devices or system.
• A control system is defined to be a system
having sub – systems and processes ( or plants)
assembled for the purpose of controlling or
regulating the outputs of the processes ( or
plants) to a desired value.
 Control System
•  Defn.A control system is a system of devices or
set of devices, that manages commands, directs or
regulates the behavior of other device(s) or
system(s) to achieve desire results. In other words
the definition of control system can be rewritten
as ‘a control system is a system, which controls
other system’.
• In most cases this function is the control of
physical variable, such as temperature,
voltage, frequency, flow rate, current,
position, speed, illumination, altitude, etc.,
these are called controlled variables.
 Control System (Cont…)
• For example: A furnace produces heat as a result
of the flow of fuel into the burner of the furnace.
In this system, the sub-systems are the fuel
burner, fuel valve, and fuel valve actuators that
are used to regulate the temperature of the room
by regulating the flow of fuel and hence the heat
output from the furnace. Other sub-system is the
device such as thermostats, which act as sensors
to measure the room temperature.
 Control System (Cont…)
• In its simplest form, a control system provides an output
or response for a given input or stimulus as shown by the
following diagram:
Output;
Input; Stimulus Response
Desired Control System
Actual
Response Response

Fig.1: Control; System

• So, a Control System has three generic components:
Input, Process & Output or I-P-O
 Controlled System
• The system which is controlled by a controller is
known as Controlled System. The controlled system
has an input variable and an output variable. Its
response is described in terms of dependence of the
output variable on the input variable. These
responses between one or several variables can
normally be described using mathematical equations
based on physical laws. Such physical relationships
can be determined by experimentation.
 Controlled System (Cont…)
• Example: A water bath is to be maintained at a constant
temperature. The water bath is heated by a helical pipe
through which steam flows. The flow rate of steam can be set
by means of a control valve. Here the control system consists
of positioning of the control value and the temperature of the
water bath. This result in a controlled system with the input
variable “ temperature of water bath” and the output variable
“position of a control value”
Advantages of Creating a System

The advantage of creating a system with input and output

variable and representing the system as a block is that
this representation separates the problem from the
specific equipment used and allows a generic view. You
will soon see that all sorts of controlled system
demonstrate the same response and can therefore be
treated in the same manner
 Advantages of Control Systems (Cont..)
• With control systems, we can move large equipments with
precision that would otherwise be impossible. We can position
huge satellite antennas towards the farther reaches of the
universe to pick up faint radio signal; moving or controlling such
antennas by muscle power would be rather impossible.
• Because of control systems, a lift or an elevator carry us quickly to
our destination automatically stopping at the right floor. We
alone, could not provide the power required for the load to
perform this job; motors provide the power and the control
systems regular the position and the speed
 Advantages of Control Systems (Cont..)
• Control systems provide us the facilities to control
process variables in the hazardous areas in the
chemical process plant hat would have been
impossible without endangering human life.
•  Therefore, the advantages of control systems usually
include the following:
– maximization of throughput, speed, yield safety, and more;
– minimization of energy consumption, waste production,
emissions, and more;
– Decreasing the impact of disturbances, noise uncertainty,
time variations, and so forth.
 Reasons to Build Control Systems
• We build a control systems for four primary
reason:
1. Power amplification
2. Remote control
3. Convenience of input from
4. Compensation for disturbances
• For example : A radar antenna, positioned by the
lower – power rotation of a knob at the input, requires a
large amount for its output rotation. A control system
can produce the needed power amplification or power
gain.
 Why Control Systems are Built?
(Cont…)
• Robots designed by control system principle can
compensate for human disabilities. Control systems
are also used in remote or hazardous locations in a
process plant where human operator’s life and health
will be at risks. Control systems can also be used to
provide convenience by changing the form of inputs.
For example, in temperature control system, the
input is position on a thermostat. The output is heat.
Thus a convenient input produces desired thermal
output.
 Why Control Systems are Built?(Cont..)
• Typically, we control such variables as temperature in thermal
systems, position and velocity in mechanical systems, voltage in
current or frequency in electrical systems, volume, pressure, or
level in fluids. But there is always noise or disturbances in these
systems due to environmental changes. The system must be able
to produce correct output even with disturbances.
• For example: consider an antenna system those points in a
commanded direction. If the wind opposes this direction of
movement of antenna or any internal problem opposes the
movement of the antenna, that is if the disturbance that opposes
the movement of the antenna, it must be detected and corrected
the position of the antenna. Obviously, the system’s input will not
be changed to make the correction. So, the system itself must be
able to measure the amount of disturbances from the internal or
external sources and take necessary actions (corrective measures)
to put the antenna to its desired position. This is called the
compensation of the disturbances.
 Importance of Control Systems
• In recent years, control systems plays main role in the
development and advancement of modern technology and
civilization.
• Practically every aspects of our day-to-day life is affected less or
more by some control system. A bathroom toilet tank, a
refrigerator, an air conditioner, a geezer, an automatic iron, an
automobile all are control system. These systems are also used in
industrial process for more output. We find control system in
quality control of products, weapons system, transportation
systems, power system, space technology, robotics and many
more. The principles of control theory are applicable to
engineering and non engineering field both.
 Basic Ingredients Control of System
• Regardless of what type of control system we have, the
basic ingredients of a control system may be described
by
   1. Objectives of the control
  2. Control system components
   3. Results

  
 Objective of Control System

Fig. 2: a & b Basic components of control systems

   In general, the objective of the control system is to

control the outputs ‘C’ in some prescribed manner by
the inputs ‘U’ through the elements of the control
system. The inputs of the system are also called
actuating signals, and outputs are known as controlled
variables.
 System and Control
• Control systems are not human inventions; they have
naturally evolved in the earth’s living system. The
action of automatic control regulates the conditions
necessary for life in almost all living things. They
possess sensing and controlling systems and counter
disturbances.
• An automatic temperature control system, for
example, makes it possible to maintain the
temperature of the human body constant at the right
value despite varying ambient conditions.
 System and Control (Cont…)

• The human body is a very sophisticated biochemical

processing plant in which the consumed food is
processed and glands automatically release the
required quantities of chemical substances as and
when necessary in the process. 
• The stability of the human body and its ability to
move as desired are due to some very effective
motion control systems. A bird in flight, a fish
swimming in water or an animal on the run- all are
under the influence of some very efficient control
systems that have evolved in them.
 Controlled System
• The system which is controlled by a controller is
known as Controlled System. The controlled
system has an input variable and an output
variable. Its response is described in terms of
dependence of the output variable on the input
variable. These responses between one or
several variables can normally be described
using mathematical equations based on physical
laws. Such physical relationships can be
determined by experimentation.
 Controlled System (Cont…)
• Example: A water bath is to be maintained at a constant
temperature. The water bath is heated by a helical pipe
through which steam flows. The flow rate of steam can
be set by means of a control valve. Here the control
system consists of positioning of the control valve and
the temperature of the water bath. This result in a
controlled system with the input variable “ temperature of
water bath” and the output variable “position of a control
valve”
 Branches of Control Engineering
Here we are going to give a brief listing of the various
different methodologies within the sphere of control
engineering. However, often the lines between these
methodologies are blurred, or even erased completely.
Classical Controls: Control methodologies where the ODEs
that describe a system are transformed using the
Laplace, Fourier, or Z Transforms, and manipulated in the
transform domain.
 Branches of Control Engineering (Cont…)
• Modern Controls: Methods where high-order differential equations
are broken into a system of first-order equations. The input, output,
and internal states of the system are described by vectors called
"state variables".
• Robust Control: Control methodologies where arbitrary outside
noise/disturbances are accounted for, as well as internal
inaccuracies caused by the heat of the system itself, and the
environment.
• Optimal Control: In a system, performance metrics are identified,
and arranged into a "cost function". The cost function is minimized
to create an operational system with the lowest cost.
Branches of Control Engineering (Cont…)

• Adaptive Control : In adaptive control, the control changes its

response characteristics over time to better control the system.
• Nonlinear Control: The youngest branch of control engineering,
nonlinear control encompasses systems that cannot be described by linear
equations or ODEs, and for which there is often very little supporting
theory available.
• Game Theory: Game Theory is a close relative of control
theory, and especially robust control and optimal control
theories. In game theory, the external disturbances are not
considered to be random noise processes, but instead are
considered to be "opponents". Each player has a cost function
that they attempt to minimize, and that their opponents
attempt to maximize.
Branches of Control Engineering (Cont…)

• Linear Control: For MIMO systems, pole placement can

be performed mathematically using a
state space representation of the open-loop system and
calculating a feedback matrix assigning poles in the
desired positions. In complicated systems this can
require computer-assisted calculation capabilities, and
cannot always ensure robustness. Furthermore, all
system states are not in general measured and so
observers must be included and incorporated in pole
placement design.
 Study of Control Systems
• While dealing with control systems, we shall be concerned mostly with dynamic
systems. The behavior of such systems is described in the form of differential
equations
• Although these will normally be nonlinear, it is customary to linearize them about an
operating point to obtain linear differential equations.
• The components of a control system are diverse in nature and may include electrical,
mechanical, thermal and fluidic devices. The differential equations relating the input and
output quantities for these devices are obtained using the basic law of physics. These include
balancing forces, energy and mass. In practice, some simplifying assumptions are often made
to obtain linear differential equations. With constant coefficients, although in most cases
exact analysis would lead to nonlinear partial differential equations. For most physical
devices one may classify the variables as either THROUGH or ACROSS variables, in the sense
that the former refer to a point while the latter are measured between two points.
• The input , output relations of various physical components of a system is
governed by differential equation. The mathematical model of a control system
constitutes a set of differential equation.
 Types of Control
• Before we introduce the theory of control system to you, it is very
essential to know the various types of control systems. Now there
are various types of systems, we are going to discuss only those
types of systems that will help us to understand the theory of
control system and detail description of these types of system are
given below.
• In control theory, a controller is a device which monitors and
affects the operational conditions of a given dynamical system.
The operational conditions are typically referred to as output
variables of the system which can be affected by adjusting certain
input variables.
• For example, the heating system of a house can be equipped with
a thermostat (controller) for sensing air temperature (output
variable) which can turn on or off a furnace or heater when the air
temperature becomes too low or too high.
 Types of Control (Cont…)
•In this example, the thermostat is the controller and directs the activities of the
heater. The heater is the processor that warms the air inside the house to the desired
temperature (setpoint). The air temperature reading inside the house is the feedback.
And finally, the house is the environment in which the heating system operates.
• Regulator(e.g. fly ball governor): maintains a constant output despite disturbances
• Compensator(e.g. elevator): drive system from an initial to a final state according to
specifications on the transient response
•Tracking(e.g. space robot): match output to a non-stationary input despite
disturbances
•Optimal control(e.g. hard disk drive): –drive system from an initial to a final state
while optimizing a merit function (e.g. minimum time to target or minimum energy
consumption)
•Combinations of the above: (e.g. Segway might regulate a constant trajectory or
drive a transient to turn trajectory while minimizing energy consumption)
 Types of Control (Cont…)
• Servomechanism: Sometimes, the objective of controller is to
position a system or an object.
• A control system used to control position or its derivative is termed
as servomechanism. The special features of servo-mechanism are:
closed loop system, used to control position, velocity or acceleration,
high power amplifying stages for operation of the system from very
small error to signal, automatic control, remote operation, fast
response and high accuracy.
 Types of Control Systems
• Linear Control Systems: In order to understand the linear control system,
we should know the principle of superposition. The principle of
superposition theorem includes two the important properties and they
are explained below:
• Homogeneity: A system is said to be homogeneous, if we multiply input
with some constant ‘A’ then output will also be multiplied by the same
value of constant (i.e. A).
•  Additivity: Suppose we have a system ‘S’ and we are giving the input to
this system as ‘a1’ for the first time and we are getting output as ‘b1’
corresponding to input ‘a1’. On second time we are giving input ‘a2’ and
correspond to this we are getting output as ‘b2’. Now suppose this time
we giving input as summation of the previous inputs ( i.e. a1 + a2 ) and
corresponding to this input suppose we are getting output as (b1 + b2)
then we can say that system ‘S’ is following the property of additivity.
Now we are able to define the linear control systems as those types of
control systems which follow the principle of homogeneity and additivity.
 Types of Control (Cont…)
• Examples of Linear Control System: Consider a purely resistive network
with a constant dc source. This circuit follows the principle of
homogeneity and additivity. All the undesired effects are neglected and
assuming ideal behavior of each element in the network, we say that we
will get linear voltage and current characteristic. This is the example of
linear control system.
• Non-linear Systems: We can simply define non linear control system as
all those system which do not follow the principle of homogeneity. In
practical life all the systems are non-linear system.
•  Example: A well known example of non-linear system is magnetization
curve or no load curve of a dc machine. We will discuss briefly no load
curve of dc machines here: No load curve gives us the relationship
between the air gap flux and the field winding mmf. It is very clear from
the curve given below that in the beginning there is a linear relationship
between winding mmf and the air gap flux but after this, saturation has
come which shows the non linear behavior of the curve or characteristics
of the non linear
 Linear or Feedback Controls
• In the case of linear feedback systems, a control loop,
including sensors, control algorithms and actuators, is
arranged in such a fashion as to try to regulate a variable
at a setpoint or reference value.
• An example of this may increase the fuel supply to a
furnace when a measured temperature drops.
• PID controllers are common and effective in cases such as
this. Control systems that include some sensing of the
results they are trying to achieve are making use of
feedback and so can, to some extent, adapt to varying
circumstances.
 Analog or Continuous System
• In these types of control system we have
continuous signal as the input to the system.
These signals are the continuous function of
time. We may have various sources of continuous
input signal like sinusoidal type signal input
source, square type of signal input source, signal
may be in the form of continuous triangle etc.
 Digital or Discrete System
• In these types of control system we have discrete
signal (or signal may be in the form of pulse) as
the input to the system. These signals have the
discrete interval of time. We can convert various
sources of continuous input signal like sinusoidal
type signal input source, square type of signal
input source etc into discrete form using the
switch.
 Advantages of Digital System Over Analog System
• There are various advantages of discrete or digital system over the analog
system and these advantages are written below:
– Digital systems can handle non linear control systems more effectively than the
analog type of systems.
– Power requirement in case of discrete or digital system is less as compared to
analog systems.
– Digital system has higher rate of accuracy and can perform various complex
computations easily as compared to analog systems.
– Reliability of digital system is more as compared to analog system. They also have
small and compact size.
– Digital system works on the logical operations which increases their accuracy
many times.
– Losses in case of discrete systems are less as compared to analog systems in
general.
 SISO And MIMO Systems
• Single Input Single Output Systems: These are also known as SISO type of system. In this the
system has single input for single output. Various example of this kind of system
may include temperature control, position control system etc.
•  Multiple Input Multiple Output Systems: These are also known as MIMO type
of system. In this the system has multiple outputs for multiple inputs. Various
example of this kind of system may include PLC type system etc.
•  Lumped Parameter System: In these types of control systems the various active
(resistor) and passive parameters (like inductor and capacitor) are assumed to
be concentrated at a point and that’s why these are called lumped parameter
type of system. Analysis of such type of system is very easy which includes
differential equations.
•  Distributed Parameter System: In these types of control systems the various
active (resistor) and passive parameters (like inductor and capacitor) are
assumed to be distributed uniformly along the length and that’s why these are
called distributed parameter type of system. Analysis of such type of system is
slightly difficult which includes partial differential equations.
 Logic or Sequential Controls
• A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a
Boolean function, that is, it performs a logical operation on
one or more logical inputs, and produces a single logical
output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an
ideal logic gate, one that has for instance zero rise time and
unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical
device[1] (see Ideal and real op-amps for comparison).
•  Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or
transistors acting as electronic switches, but can also be
constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic),
fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even
mechanical
 Sequential Control System

• A control system in which the individual steps are

processed in a predetermined order, progression from
one sequence step to the next being dependent on
defined conditions being satisfied. Such a system may
be time-dependent, in which the step transition
conditions are functions of time only; on external-
event dependent, where the conditions are functions
of Input signals only; or combinations of these (and
perhaps more complex) conditions.
Types of Control
 General Classification of Control Systems
• Based on the arrangements of the control system
components or mechanisms, the control system may be
classified as:
– Open-loop Control
– Closed-loop Control
• An open-loop control, also called a non-feedback control, is a
type of control, which computes its input into a system using
only the current state and its model of the system.
• German Standard DIN 19 226 defines the open-loop control
as a process taking place in a system where by one or more
variables in the form of input variables exert influence on the
other variables in the form of output variables by reason of
the laws which characterize the system.
• Example: Volumetric flow is set by adjusting a control valve. At constant
applied pressure, the volumetric flow is directly influenced by the position
of the control value. This relationship between control value setting and
volumetric flow can be determined either by means of physical education
or by experiment. This result in the definition of a system consisting of the
“value” with the output variable
 Open-loop Control (Cont…)
• A characteristic of the open-loop controller is
that it does not use feedback to determine
whether its input has achieved the desired goal.
This means that the system does not observe
the output of the processes that it is controlling.
Consequently, a true open-loop system can not
engage in machine learning and also cannot
correct any errors that it could make. It also may
not compensate for disturbances in the system.
 Open-loop Control (Cont…)
• Open-loop control systems do not directly make use
of feedback, but run only in pre-defined value.
• For example, an irrigation sprinkler system,
programmed to turn on at set times could be an
example of an open-loop system if it does not
measure soil moisture as a form of feedback. Even if
rain is pouring down on the lawn, the sprinkler
system would activate on schedule, wasting water.
 Open-loop Control (Cont…)
• German Standard DIN 19 226 defines the open-loop control as
a process taking place in a system where by one or more
variables in the form of input variables exert influence on the
other variables in the form of output variables by reason of
the laws which characterize the system.
• Example: Volumetric flow is set by adjusting a control valve.
At constant applied pressure, the volumetric flow is directly
influenced by the position of the control value. This
relationship between control value setting and volumetric
flow can be determined either by means of physical education
or by experiment. This result in the definition of a system
consisting of the “value” with the output variable
 Open-loop Control (Cont…)
• Open-loop control is useful for well-defined systems
where the relationship between input and the resultant
state can be modeled by a mathematical formula.
• For example determining the voltage to be fed to an
electric motor that drives a constant load, in order to achieve a
desired speed would be a good application of open-loop control.
If the load were not predictable, on the other hand, the motor's
speed might vary as a function of the load as well as of the
voltage, and an open-loop controller would therefore not be
sufficient to ensure repeatable control of the velocity.
 General Classification of Control Systems

• So, we find that ‘a control system in which the control action

is totally independent of output of the system then it is called
open loop control system’. Open loop system is also called as
Manual control system. The following figure shows the block
diagram of open loop control system in which process output
is totally independent of controller action.

Fig. Block Diagram Representation of Open-loop Control Systems

 Practical Examples Of Open Loop Control System
• Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep
your hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand
is dried.
• Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the
pre-set time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
• Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective
of toasting is completed or not.
• Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for pre
adjusted time only.
• Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for pre –
adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
• Light Switch – lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of
light is required or not.
 Open-loop Control Sequences
The following sequence of events take place
within the controlled system:
The position of the control value affects the flow
rate of steam through the helical pipe.
• The steam flow – rate determines the amount
of heat passed to the water bath.
• The temperature of the bath increases if the
heat input is greater than the heat loss and
drops if the heat input is less than the heat
loss.
• The sequences give the relationship between
the input and output variable.
•
 Closed-loop Control
• A closed-loop control system is one in which an input
forcing function is determined in part by the system
response.
• The measured response of a physical system is
compared with a desired response. The difference
between these two responses initiates actions that will
result in the actual response of the system to approach
the desired response. This in turn drives the difference
signal toward zero. Typically the difference of signals is
processed by another physical system, which is called a
compensator, a controller, or a filter for real-time
control system applications
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• A closed-loop control system can be
represented by the general block diagram
shown below:

Figure 4: Closed-loop Control

System

In this configuration, a feedback component is applied together with the

input R. The difference between the input and feedback signals is applied to
the controller. In responding to this difference, the controller acts on the
process forcing C to change in the direction that will reduce the difference
between the input signal and the feedback component. This, in turn, will
reduce the input to the process and result in a smaller change in C. This
chain of events continues until a time is reached when C approximately
equals R.
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• Closed-loop[ Controller: Generally, to obtain a
more accurate or more adaptive control, it is
necessary to feed the output of the system
back to the inputs of the controller. This type
of system is called a Feedback Control System
or Closed-lop Control System
• The approach is the use of feedback where by
the quantity to be controlled, say C is
measured, compared with the desired value,
R, and the error between the two, E = R – C
used to adjust C.
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• DIN 19 226 defines closed – loop control as a process where the
controlled variable is continuously monitored and compared with
the reference variable. Depending on the result of this
comparison, the input variable for the system is influenced to
adjust the output variable to the desired value despite any
disturbing influences. This feedback results in a closed – loop
action. Because the output is measured and fed back to input for
comparison, the closed-loop control is also known as feedback
control.
• In a closed-loop control system, an input forcing function is
determined in part by the system response. The measured
response of a physical system is compared with a desired
response. The difference between these two responses initiates
actions that will result in the actual response of the system to
approach the desired response. This in turn drives the difference
signal toward zero. Typically the difference of signals is processed
by another physical system, which is called a compensator, a
controller, or a filter for real-time control system applications
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• Closed loop or feedback control operates
according to a very simple principle:
   1. Measure the variable to be controlled.
   2. Compare this measured valu with the desired
value and determine the difference.
   3. Use this difference to adjust the controlled
variable so as to reduce the difference. (error)
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
Figure-5 gives a classical feedback control loop structure
.

Fig.5 Closed-loop Control of Flow Setting

 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• This system can be controlled by adjusting the control value.
This allows the desired volumetric flow to be set.
However, if the applied pressure fluctuates, the volumetric
flow will also fluctuate. In this system, the human observer
looks at the output or control value does adjust the valve
opening to achieve the desired output by opening and closing
the valve. As the control is done manually, it is manual closed-
loop control. If this adjustment is to take place automatically,
the system must have some automatic device for adjustment.
In that case, the controller will be termed as automatic
closed-loop controller.
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• In the Closed loop Control System, the control action is
dependent on the desired output, where the output quantity is
considerably controlled by sending a command signal to input
quantity
• In a closed loop control system, the variable to be controlled
(controlled variable x) is continuously measured and then
compared with a predetermined value (reference variable w). If
there is a difference between these two variables (error e or
system deviation xw), adjustments are being made until the
measured difference is eliminated and the controlled variable
equals the reference variable. Hence, the characteristic feature
of closed loop control is a closed action flow.
Closed-loop Control (Cont…)

Fig. 6: Operator controls the

process variable p2 an a
closed loop
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• The operator depicted in Fig.6 monitors the pressure p2 in the
pipeline to which different consumers are connected. When
the consumption increases, the pressure in the pipeline
decreases. The operator recognizes the pressure drop and
changes the control pressure of the pneumatic control valve
until the desired pressure p2 is indicated again. Through
continuous monitoring of the pressure indicator and
immediate reaction, the operator ensures that the pressure is
maintained at the desired level. The visual feedback of the
process variable p2 from the pressure indicator to the
operator characterizes the closed action flow.
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• Closed loop control is a process whereby one variable,
namely the variable to be controlled (controlled variable) is
continuously monitored, compared with another variable,
namely the reference variable and, depending on the
outcome of this comparison, influenced in such a manner as
to bring about adaptation to the reference variable. The
characteristic feature of closed loop control is the closed
action flow in which the controlled variable continuously
influences itself in the action path of the control loop.
• A control process can also be regarded as ‘continuous’ if it is
composed of a sufficiently frequent repetition of identical
individual processes. The cyclic program sequence of digital
sampling control would be such a process.
 Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
• Closed loop control is a process whereby one variable,
namely the variable to be controlled (controlled variable) is
continuously monitored, compared with another variable,
namely the reference variable and, depending on the
outcome of this comparison, influenced in such a manner as
to bring about adaptation to the reference variable. The
characteristic feature of closed loop control is the closed
action flow in which the controlled variable continuously
influences itself in the action path of the control loop.
• A control process can also be regarded as ‘continuous’ if it is
composed of a sufficiently frequent repetition of identical
individual processes. The cyclic program sequence of digital
sampling control would be such a process.
 How Does Closed-loop Control Work?
• The basic elements of a feedback control system are shown in
figure 10 .system measures the output and compares the
measurement with the desired value of the output as prescribed
by the input. It uses the error (i.e., the difference between the
actual output and desired output) to change the actual output
and to bring it into closer correspondence with the desired
value.
• Since arbitrary disturbances and unwanted fluctuations can
occur at various points in the system, a feedback control system
must be able to reject or filter out these fluctuations and
perform its task with prescribed accuracies, while producing as
faithful a representation of the desired output as feasible. This
function of filtering and smoothing is achieved by various
electrical and mechanical components, gyroscopic devices,
accelerometers, etc., and by using different types of feedback.
 Representation of Closed-Loop Control System
A closed-loop control system can be represented by the
general block diagram as shown figure-7. In a closed-loop control
system, control action is dependent on the output.  

Figure 7: Closed-loop Control System

In this configuration, a feedback component is applied together with the

input R. The difference between the input and feedback signals is applied
to the controller. In responding to this difference, the controller acts on
the process forcing C to change in the direction that will reduce the
difference between the input signal and the feedback component. This, in
turn, will reduce the input to the process and result in a smaller change in
C. This chain of events continues until a time is reached when C
approximately equals R.
Closed-loop Control Example

Fig.8: Closed-loop Control System

 Open-loop Versus Closed-loop Control
• We know by this time that systems that utilize feedback are called closed-
loop control systems. The feedback is used to make decisions about
changes to the control signal that drives the plant. By contrast, an open-
loop control system doesn't have or doesn't use feedback.

• Figure -11: A closed-loop control system

 Control Automation
• Modern automation of a plant involves
components such as sensors, instruments,
computers and application of techniques of
data processing and control. The principles
and techniques of automatic control may be
applied in a wide variety of systems in order to
enhance the quality of their performance.
 Control Automation
• Modern automation of a plant involves
components such as sensors, instruments,
computers and application of techniques of
data processing and control. The principles
and techniques of automatic control may be
applied in a wide variety of systems in order to
enhance the quality of their performance.
 Automatic & Manual Control
• Closed-loop control may be manual or automatic

Fig.9: Manual Closed-loop Control

 Automatic Control System
• The control system in which the output is measured and transduced,
fedback into the input, compared with the input, the control action is
executed automatically without the intervention of any human operator is
known as Automatic control. Automation is the research area and
theoretical base for mechanization and automation, employing methods
from mathematics and engineering. A central concept is that of the system
which is to be controlled, such as a radar, propeller or an entire
ballistic missile. The systems studied within automatic control are mostly the
linear systems.
• Automatic control systems are composed of three main
components:
– Sensor(s), which measure some physical state such as temperature or
liquid level.
– Responder(s), which may be simple electrical or mechanical systems or
complex special purpose digital controllers or general purpose
computers.
– d later in the course if time permits).
 Automatic Control System
– An actuator is a mechanical device for moving or
controlling a mechanism or system. Actuator(s), which
affect a response to the sensor(s) under the command
of the responder, for example, by controlling a gas flow
to a burner in a heating system or electricity to a motor
in a refrigerator or pump.
• A common closed-loop controller architecture is the
PID controller (This will be discusse
Automatic & Manual Control (Cont…)

Fig.10: Automatic Closed-loop Control

 Automatic & Manual Control (Cont…)

In manual control:
• The operator adjusts the output to operate the plant.
• During startup, this mode is normally used.

In automatic control
• The control algorithm manipulates the output to hold the
process measurements at their setpoint
 Control Loop
• Closed-loop control forms a closed path by creating a return
path for the output signal to be compared with the input
signal. This closed-path is known as the Control Loop.
• The components of a control loop, each having different tasks
to perform are distinguished as follows:
 Control Loop (Cont…)
• The distinction made above results directly from the distribution of tasks.
The actuator processes and amplifies the output signal of the controller,
whereas the final control element – as part of the controlled system –
manipulates the mass and energy flow.

Fig.13:
Figure
showing the
basic
functions of
Closed-loop
Control
System
The most basic feedback control system has three components:
(i)    A plant (the object to be controlled, no matter what it is, is always referred   to as the
plant),
(ii)   A sensor to measure the output of the plant, and 
(iii)  A controller to generate the plant’s input. Usually, actuators are lumped
       in with the plant.
 Vocabulary of Closed-loop Control
The terms used in the closed-loop control system are defined
below:
1. Command: The command is the input which is varied by some
means external to and independent of the feedback control
system.
2. Reference Input: The reference input is a signal established as a
standard of comparison for a feedback control system by virtue
of its relation to the command input.
3. System Error: The system error is the ideal value of the
controlled variable minus the value of the final controlled
variable.
4. Controlled Variable: It is the quantity or condition that is
measured & controlled.
5. Control Elements: The control elements comprise of the
feedback and the elements which when employed give the
actuating signal and regulate the output.
 Vocabulary of Closed-loop Control (Cont…)
6. Disturbances and Uncertainty: One of the things that make
control science interesting is that all real life systems are acted on
by noise and external disturbances. These factors can have a
significant impact on the performance of the system. As a simple
example, aircraft are subject to disturbances in the form of wind-
gusts, and cruise controllers in cars have to cope with different
road gradients and different car loadings. A disturbance is an
undesired input signal which affects the value of the controlled
output.
7. Sensors: Sensors are the eyes of control enabling one to see what
is going on. Indeed, one statement that is sometimes made
about control is: If you can measure it, you can control it.
8. Actuators: Once sensors are in place to report on the state of a
process, then the next issue is the ability to affect, or actuate, the
system in order to move the process from the current state to a
desired state
9. Actuating Input (or Signal: This is the reference input minus the
primary feedback and provides for corrective action.
 Advantages of Closed-loop Controllers
Closed-loop controllers have the following
advantages over open-loop controllers:
• disturbance rejection (such as unmeasured friction in a
motor)
• guaranteed performance even with model
uncertainties, when the model structure does not
match perfectly the real process and the model
parameters are not exact
• unstable processes can be stabilized
• reduced sensitivity to parameter variations
• improved reference tracking performance
 Comparison of Open loop & Closed loop Systems
1. An open loop system has the ability to perform accurately, if its
calibration is good. If the calibration is not perfect its
performance will go down.
2. It is simple, easier to build and less expensive
3. In general it is more stable as the feed back is absent.
4. If non- present; the system operation is not good.
5. Feed back is absent i.e., output has no influence on input
 Examples:
(i) Traffic Control System.
(ii) Control of furnace for coal heating.
(iii) An Electric Washing Machine
 Comparison of Open loop & Closed loop Systems

Closed Loop System

1. A closed loop system has got the ability to perform accurately
because of the feed back.
2. It is complex, difficult to build and costly
3. Comparatively less stable even under the presence of non- loop
system.
5. Feed back is present i.e., output influences the input
 Example:
(i) Pressure Control System.
(ii) Speed Control System. (iii) Robot Control System.
(iii) Temperature Control System
 Note: Any control system which operates on time basis is an Open
Loop System
 Characteristics of Open-loop Control
• In an Open-loop Control System, the control action is
independent of the desired output; i.e., when  the output
quantity of  the control system  is not  fed back  to  the  input
quantity,  the control system is called an Open loop System.
e.g. Blind man's action, traffic control without traffic police
• A characteristic of the open-loop control is that it does not
use feedback to determine whether its input has achieved
the desired goal. This means that the system does not
observe the output of the processes that it is controlling.
Consequently, a true open-loop system can not engage in
machine learning and also cannot correct any errors that it
could make. It also may not compensate for disturbances
in the system.
Open-loop Control Vs Closed-loop Control
Advantages of open loop system.
• The advantages of open loop system are
1. Such systems are simple in construction.
2. Very much convenient when input is difficult to measure.
3. Such systems are easy for maintenance point of view.
4. Generally these are not troubled with problems of stability.
5. Such systems are simple to design and hence economical.
Disadvantages of open loop system.
• The disadvantages of open loop system are
1. Such systems are inaccurate and unreliable because accuracy of such
systems are totally dependent on the accurate precalibration of the
controller.
2. Such systems give inaccurate results if there are variation in the
external environment i.e. systems cannot sense environmental
changes.
3. Similarly they cannot sense internal disturbances in the system, after
the controller stage.
Advantages of closed loop system.
• The advantages of closed loop system are:
1.accuracy of such system is always very high because controller
modifies and manipulates the actuating signal such that error in the
system will be zero.
2. Such systems senses environmental changes, as well as internal
disturbances and accordingly modifies the error.
1. In such system, there is reduced effect of non-linearites and
distortions.
Comparison between open loop system and
closed loop system
Linear system
• A system is said to be linear if it obeys the principle of superposition and
homogeneity. The principle of superposition states that the response of the system
to a weighted sum of the responses of the system to each individual input signals.
• The system is said to be linear, if it satisfies the following two properties:
•  Adaptive property that is for any x and y belonging to the domain of the function
f, we have : F(x+y) = f(x) +f(y)
• Homogeneous property that is for any x belonging to the domain of the function f
and for any scalar constant α . We have: F(αx) = αf(x)
• These two properties together constitute a principle of superposition.
• Most of the systems are non-linear in nature because of different non-linearities
such as saturation, friction, dead zone etc. present in the system.
Transfer Function
• Transfer function of a given system is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform
of output variable to laplace transform of input variables at zero input conditions.
• Transfer function of a given system is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform
of output variable to laplace transform of input variables at zero input conditions.
• Properties of transfer functions: The properties of transfer function are as follows:
• The transfer function of a system is the Laplace transform of its impulse response. I.e. if the
input to a system with transfer function P(s) is an impulse and all initial conditions are zero,
the transform of the output is P(s).
• The roots of the denominator are the system poles and the roots of the numerator are system
zeros. The system stability can be described in terms of the location of the roots of the
transfer function.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Transfer Function
• Advantages of transfer function.
• It helps in the stability analysis of the system.
• It helps in determining the important information about the system Poles, zeros,
characteristic equation etc.
• Once transfer function is known, output response for any type of reference input can
be calculated.
• The system differential equation can be easily obtained by replacing variable ‘s’ by
d/dt.
• Disadvantages of transfer function.
• The disadvantages of transfer function approach are:
• Only applicable to linear time invariant systems.
• It does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the system.
From transfer function, physical nature of the system, whether it is electrical,
mechanical, thermal or hydraulic cannot be judged.
• Effects arising due to initial conditions are totally neglected. Hence initial conditions
loose importance.
Important features of feedback
• Reduced effects of non-linearities and distortion.
• Increased accuracy.
• Reduced sensitivity of the ratio of the output to input to variations in
system characteristics.
• Tendency toward oscillation or instability
Properties of transfer functions.
• The properties of transfer function are as follows:
• The transfer function of a system is the laplace transform of its
impulse response. I.e. if the input to a system with transfer function
P(s) is an impulse and all initial conditions are zero, the transform of
the output is P(s).
• The roots of the denominator are the system poles and the roots of
the numerator are system zeros. The system stability can be described
in terms of the location of the roots of the transfer function.
Advantages & Disadvantages of transfer function
• Advantages of Transfer function are:
• It helps in the stability analysis of the system
• It helps in determining the important information about the system Poles, zeros,
characteristic equation etc.
• Once transfer function is known, output response for any type of reference input
can be calculated.
• The system differential equation can be easily obtained by replacing variable ‘s’ by
d/dt
• The disadvantages of transfer function approach are:
• Only applicable to linear time invariant systems.
• It does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the
system. From transfer function, physical nature of the system, whether it is
electrical, mechanical, thermal or hydraulic cannot be judged.
• Effects arising due to initial conditions are totally neglected. Hence initial
conditions loose importance.
Disadvantages of transfer function