Chapter 4

The Tissue Level of Organization

Lecture Outline

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 INTRODUCTION

• A tissue is a group of similar cells that usually have a similar

embryological origin and are specialized for a particular
function.
• The nature of the extracellular material that surrounds the
connections between the cells that compose the tissue
influence the structure and properties of a specific tissue.

• Pathologists, physicians who specialize in laboratory studies

of cells and tissues, aid other physicians in making
diagnoses; they also perform autopsies.
Chapter 4 The Tissue Level
of Organization

• Histology
– the study of tissues

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 TYPES OF TISSUES AND THEIR ORIGINS

Four principal types based on function and structure

• Epithelial tissue
– covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, body cavities,
and ducts; and forms glands.
• Connective tissue
– protects and supports the body and its organs, binds
organs together, stores energy reserves as fat, and
provides immunity.
• Muscle tissue
– is responsible for movement and generation of
• force.
Nervous tissue
– initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulses)
that help coordinate body activities.
 Origin of Tissues

• Primary germ layers within the embryo

– endoderm
– mesoderm
–Ectoderm
• Tissue derivations
– epithelium
from all 3 germ
layers
– connective
tissue &
muscle from
mesoderm
– nerve tissue
from ectoderm
 DEVELOPMENT

• Normally, most cells within a tissue remain in place,

anchored to
– other cells
– a basement membranes
– connective tissues

• Exceptions include phagocytes and embryonic cells involved

in differentiation and growth.
 Biopsy

• Removal of living tissue for microscopic examination

– surgery
– needle biopsy
• Useful for diagnosis, especially cancer
• Tissue preserved, sectioned and stained before microscopic
viewing
 CELL JUNCTIONS

• Cell junctions are points of contact between adjacent

plasma membranes.
• Depending on their structure, cell junctions may serve one
of three functions.
– Some cell junctions form fluid-tight seals between cells.
– Other cell junctions anchor cells together or to
extracellular material.
– Still others act as channels, which allow ions and
molecules to pass from cell to cell within a tissue.
CELL JUNCTIONS

• The five most

important kinds of
cell junctions are
tight junctions,
adherens
junctions,
desmosomes,
hemidesmosomes,
and gap junctions
(Figure 4.1)
Cell Junctions

• Tight junctions

• Adherens junctions

• Gap junctions

• Desmosomes

• Hemidesmosomes

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Tight Junctions

• Watertight seal between cells

• Plasma membranes fused with
a strip of proteins
• Common between cells that line
GI and bladder

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Adherens Junctions

• Holds epithelial cells together

• Structural components
– plaque = dense layer of
proteins inside the cell
membrane
– microfilaments extend into
cytoplasm
– integral membrane proteins
connect to membrane of other
cell

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 Gap Junctions

• Tiny space between plasma membranes

of 2 cells
• Crossed by protein channels called
connexons forming fluid filled tunnels
• Cell communication with ions &
small
• molecules
Muscle and nerve impulses spread from
cell to cell
– heart and smooth muscle of gut

Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e 13

 Desmosomes

• Resists cellular separation and

cell disruption
• Similar structure to adherens
junction except intracellular
intermediate filaments cross
cytoplasm of cell
• Cellular support of cardiac
muscle

Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e 14

 Hemidesmosomes

• Half a desmosome
• Connect cells to extracellular
material
– basement membrane

Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e 15

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
 Epithelial Tissue -- General Features

• Closely packed cells with little extracellular material

–Many cell junctions often provide secure attachment.
• Cells sit on basement membrane
– Apical (upper) free surface
–Basal surface against basement membrane
• Avascular---without blood vessels
–nutrients and wast must move by diffusion
• Good nerve supply
• Rapid cell division (high mitotic rate)
• Functions
– protection, filtration, lubrication, secretion, digestion,
absorption, transportation, excretion, sensory
reception, and reproduction.
 Basement Membrane
• Basal lamina
– from epithelial cells
–collagen fibers
• Reticular lamina
– secreted by
connective
• tissue cells
–reticular fibers
Functions:
– guide for cell migration during
development
– may become thickened due to
• increased collagen and laminin
production
Example: In diabetes mellitus, the
basement membrane of small blood
vessels, especially those in the retina and
kidney, thickens.
Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e 18
 Types of Epithelium

• Covering and lining epithelium

– epidermis of skin
– lining of blood vessels and ducts
–lining respiratory, reproductive, urinary & GI tract
• Glandular epithelium
– secreting portion of glands
– thyroid, adrenal, and sweat glands
 Classification of Epithelium
• Classified by arrangement of cells into layers
– simple = one cell layer thick
– stratified = two or more cell layers thick
– pseudostratified = cells contact BM but all cells don’t
reach apical surface
– nuclei are located at multiple levels so it looks
multilayered
• Classified by shape of surface cells (Table 4.1)
– squamous =flat
– cuboidal = cube-shaped
– columnar = tall column
– transitional = shape varies with tissue
stretching
Epithelium
 Simple Epithelium

• Simple squamous epithelium consists of a single layer of

flat, scale-like cells (Table 4.1A)
– adapted for diffusion and filtration (found in lungs and
kidneys)
– Endothelium lines the heart and blood vessels.
– Mesothelium lines the thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities and covers the organs within them.
• Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a simple layer of
cube-shaped cells
– adapted for secretion and absorption (Table 4.1B).
 Simple Epithelium

• Simple columnar epithelium consists of a single layer of

rectangular cells and can exist in two forms
– Ciliated simple columnar epithelium contains cells with
hair-like processes called cilia (Table 4.1D)
– provides motility and helps to move fluids or particles
along a surface
– Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium contains microvilli
(Figure 3.2) (Table 4.1C)
– increase surface area and the rate of absorption
– goblet cells (unicellular glands) that secrete mucus
are generally found with both types of simple
columnar epithelium
 Simple Squamous Epithelium

• Single layer of flat cells

– very thin --- controls diffusion, osmosis and filtration
– blood vessel lining (endothelium) and lining of body cavities
(mesothelium)
– nuclei are centrally located
– Cells are in direct contact with each other.

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 Examples of Simple Squamous

• Surface view of lining of • Section of intestinal showing

peritoneal cavity serosa
 Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

• Single layer of cube-shaped cells viewed from the side

– nuclei are round and centrally located
– lines tubes of kidney
– adapted for absorption or secretion

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 Example of Simple Cuboidal

• X-Sectional view of kidney tubules

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 Nonciliated Simple Columnar

• Single layer rectangular cells

• Unicellular glands (goblet cells) secrete mucus
–lubricate GI, respiratory, reproductive and urinary systems
• Microvilli (non-motile, fingerlike membrane projections)
– adapted for absorption in GI tract (stomach to
rectum)

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Ex. Nonciliated Simple Columnar

• Section from small intestine

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 Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

• Single layer rectangular cells with cilia

• Unicellular glands (goblet cells) secrete mucus
• Cilia (motile membrane extensions) move
mucous
– found in respiratory system and in uterine tubes

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Ex. Ciliated Simple Columnar

• Section of uterine tube

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 Pseudostratified Epithelium

• Pseudostratified epithelium (Table 4.1E) appears to have

several layers because the nuclei are at various levels.
• All cells are attached to the basement membrane but
some do not reach the apical surface.
• In pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, the cells
that reach the surface either secrete mucus (goblet cells) or
bear cilia that sweep away mucus and trapped foreign
particles.
• Pseudostratified nonciliated columnar epithelium contains
no cilia or goblet cells.
 Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

• Single cell layer of cells of variable height

– Nuclei are located at varying depths (appear layered.)
– Found in respiratory system, male urethra & epididymis

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 Stratified Epithelium
• Epithelia have at least two layers of cells.
– more durable and protective
– name depends on the shape of the surface (apical) cells
• Stratified squamous epithelium consists of several layers of
– top layer of cells is flat
– deeper layers of cells vary cuboidal to columnar (Table
4.1F).
– basal cells replicate by mitosis
• Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
– a tough layer of keratin (a protein resistant to friction and
repels bacteria) is deposited in the surface cells.
• Nonkeratinized epithelium remains moist.
 Stratified Epithelium
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium (Table 4.1G)
– rare tissue consisting of two or more layers of cube-shaped
cells whose function is mainly protective.
• Stratified columnar epithelium (Table 4.1H) consists of layers
of cells
– top layer is columnar
– somewhat rare
– adapted for protection and secretion
• Transitional epithelium (Table 4.1I) consists of several layers of
variable shape.
– capable of stretching / permits distention of an organ
– lines the urinary bladder
– lines portions of the ureters and the urethra.
 Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• Several cell layers thick

– flat surface cells
– Keratinized = surface cells dead and filled with keratin
– skin (epidermis)
– Nonkeratinized = no keratin in moist living cells at
surface
– mouth, vagina
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 Papanicolaou Smear (Pap smear)

• Collect sloughed off cells of uterus and vaginal walls

• Detect cellular changes (precancerous cells)
• Recommended annually for women over 18 or if
sexually active
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

• Multilayered
• Surface cells cuboidal

– rare
– sweat gland ducts
– male urethra

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 Stratified Columnar Epithelium

• Multilayered
– columnar surface cells
– rare
– very large ducts
– part of male urethra

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 Transitional Epithelium

• Multilayered
– surface cells varying in shape
– round to flat (if stretched)
– lines hollow organs that expand from within (urinary
bladder)
 Glandular Epithelium

• gland:
– a single cell or a mass of epithelial cells adapted
for secretion
– derived from epithelial cells that sank below the surface
during development

• Endocrine glands are ductless (Table 4.2A).

• Exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts that empty
at the surface of covering and lining epithelium or directly
onto a free surface (Table 4.2B).
 Glandular Epithelium

• Exocrine glands
– cells that secrete---sweat, ear wax, saliva, digestive
enzymes onto free surface of epithelial layer
– connected to the surface by tubes (ducts)
–unicellular glands or multicellular
• glands Endocrine glands
– secrete hormones into the bloodstream
– hormones help maintain homeostasis
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
 Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands
• Unicellular (single-celled) glands
–goblet cells
• Multicellular glands
– branched
(compound) or
unbranched
(simple)
– tubular or acinar
(flask-like)
shape
 Examples of Simple Glands

• Unbranched ducts = simple glands

• Duct areas are blue

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 Examples of Compound Glands

• Which is acinar? Which is tubular?

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 Duct of Multicellular Glands

• Sweat gland duct

• Stratified cuboidal epithelium

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 Exocrine Glands – Functional Classification
• Merocrine glands
– form the secretory products and discharge it by exocytosis
(Figure 4.5a).
• Apocrine glands
– accumulate secretary products at the apical surface of the
secreting cell; that portion then pinches off from the rest of
the cell to form the secretion with the remaining part of the
cell repairing itself and repeating the process (Figure 4.5b).
• Holocrine glands
– accumulate the secretory product in the cytosol
– cell dies and its products are discharged
– the discharged cell being replaced by a new one (Figure
4.5c).
Methods of Glandular Secretion

• Merocrine -- most glands

– saliva, digestive enzymes &
watery (sudoriferous)
• sweat
Apocrine
• –smelly sweat
Holocrine -- oil gland
– cells die & rupture to release
products

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