Radiography

Part 2.
Course Reference WIS 20
M.S.Rogers
 Radiographic Quality
 Density - relates to the degree of darkness

 Contrast - relates to the degree of difference

 Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness

 Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the

radiograph

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 Penumbra Ug)

Focal spot
size
Ug= sos x ofd
ffd - ofd
fod (Ug = 0.25mm)

ofd

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 Penumbra Ug)

fod Penumbra

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 Penumbra Ug)

fod Penumbra

•A reduction in fod
•An increase in penumbra
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 Penumbra Ug)
f

Penumbra

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 Penumbra Ug)
f

Penumbra

•An increase in focal spot size

•An increase in penumbra
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Penumbra Ug)

Penumbra

ofd

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 Penumbra Ug)

Penumbra

ofd

•An increase in ofd

•An increase in penumbra
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 Penumbra Ug)
 Source size as small as possible
 Source to object distance as large as
possible

 Object to film distance as small as

possible

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Penumbra Calculations
Penumbra = SOS x OFD
FFD - OFD
SOS = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275
= 4 x 25
275 - 25

Penumbra = 0.4mm

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Penumbra Calculations
Min FFD = SOS x OFD + OFD
Penumbra (0.25)
SOS = 4mm
OFD = 25mm
FFD = 275

= 4 x 25 + 25
0.25

Min FFD = 425mm

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 Radiographic Definition

Geometric unsharpness Inherent unsharpness

• FFD/SFD too short • Coarse grain film
• OFD too large • Salt screens
• Source size too large • Wavelength too short
• Vibration/movement • Fog
• Poor screen contact

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 Inherent Unsharpness
Stray electrons from
exposed crystals
- -

- -
- -
- -

- -

Exposed radiograph Adjacent crystals

with crack like indication affected by stray electrons

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 Inherent Unsharpness

 Large film grain size increased

inherent unsharpness
 Short wavelength increased inherent
unsharpness

 Loose film crystal distribution

increased inherent unsharpness

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 Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between
two intensifying screens
There are three main there are three main types
of intensifying screens

•Lead screens

•Fluorescent screens

•Fluorometallic screens

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 Lead Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
particulate radiation (electrons)
Generally lead of 0.02mm to 0.15mm
Frontscreen shortens exposure time and
improves quality by filtering out scatter
Back screen acts as a filter only

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 Salt Intensifying Screens
Film placed between 2 intensifying screens
Intensification action achieved by emitting
Light radiation (Visible or UV-A)
Intensification action twice that of lead
screens
No filtration action achieved
Salt used calcium tungstate

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 Fluorometallic Intensifying Screens

Film placed between 2 intensifying screens

Intensification action achieved by emitting light
radiation (Visible or UV-A) and particulate radiation
electrons)
High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
Salt used calcium tungstate
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 Comparison of Intensifying Screens
Screen type Order of Order of Intensification How
image speed factor intensification
quality is achieved

Lead 1 3 2-3 Electrons

Fluorescent 4 1 8-15 Light radiation

Fluorometallic 3 2 5-10 Light radiation

None 2 4 N/A None

An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure from six

minutes to two minutes

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 Image Quality Indicators

 IQI’s / Penetrameters are used to measure

radiographic sensitivity and the quality of
the radiographic technique used They are
not used to measure the size of defects
detected
 Standards for IQI’s include:
BS 3971
BS EN 462
DIN 62

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 Image Quality Indicators

7FE12

Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

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 Image Quality Indicators

Step/Hole Type IQI

Wire Type IQI

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 IQI Sensitivity
 Ideally IQI should be placed on the source
side
 IQI sensitivity is calculated from the following
formula

Sensitivity % = Thickness of thinnest step/wire visible x 100

Object Thickness

As a rough guild sensitivity = 2.0% or better.

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 Image Quality Indicators
Thickness BS 3971 DIN 54 109 BS EN 462-2 BS EN 462-1
(mm) STEP WIRE WIRE (DIN 62) STEP/HOLE WIRE
1-6 7-12 13-18 4-10 9-15 15-21 1-7 6-12 10-16 H1 H5 H9 H 13 W1 W6 W 10 W 13
0.050 7
0.063 7 6
0.08 6 5
0.10 5 7 7 4
0.125 6 4 6 6 6 3
0.15
0.16 5 3 5 5 5 2
0.20 4 2 7 4 4 4 1
0.25 3 1 6 7 3 3 7 3
0.30
0.32 2 5 6 2 2 6 6 2
0.35
0.40 1 4 5 1 1 5 5 1
0.50 6 3 4 4 4
0.60
0.63 5 2 3 3 3
0.75
0.80 4 1 7 7 2 2 6 7 2
0.90
1.00 3 6 6 1 1 5 6 1
1.20
1.25 2 5 5 4 5
1.50 1 4
1.60 4 3 4
1.80 3
2.00 6 2 3 2 6 3
2.50 5 1 2 1 5 2
3.00
3.20 4 1 4 1
4.00 3 3
5.00 2 2
6.30 1 1
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 IQI Sensitivity
A Radiograph of a 16mm thick but weld is
viewed under the correct conditions, 5 wires
visible on the radiograph IQI pack 6-12 Din
62, what is the IQI sensitivity?

Sensitivity = Thickness of thinnest wire visible X 100

Total weld thickness
Sensitivity = 0.4 X 100
16
Sensitivity = 2.5 %

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 IQI Sensitivity
Using the same IQI pack 6-12 Din 62, How
many IQI wires must be visible to give an IQI
sensitivity of 2 %

Thickness of thinnest wire visible =

Sensitivity X Total weld thickness
100

= 2.0 X 16
100

= 0.32 6 wires visible

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 Radiographic Definition
Definition measured by the use of a
type III I.Q.I.
Alternative terms given
•Duplex type

EN 462-5
•Cerl type B

•EN 462 part 5

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 Artifacts
Static discharge
• Caused by pulling the film quickly
from between the screens in a dry
atmosphere
• The appearance is lightning like
but may appear as mottled

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 Artifacts
Reticulation
• Caused by the emulsion rupturing
due to excessive temperature
differences between processing
tanks
• The appearance is a net like
structure
• It is a rare artifact due to the
flexible/plastic nature of modern
emulsions

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 Artifacts
Diffraction mottle
• Occurs in a radiograph due to the
grain size or orientation of certain
materials such as stainless steels
and aluminum
• The appearance is fine porosity
throughout the weld area on the
radiograph
• It may be reduced or eliminated
by reducing the wavelength or by
changing the radiation angle by
approximately 5o
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Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

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 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Density Film Energy Subject Processing

contrast

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 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Density Film Energy Object Processing

contrast

Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation

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 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Film Screens Energy Vibration Geometry Processing

speed

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 Factors Influencing Sensitivity
Sensitivity

Contrast Definition

Film Screens Energy Vibration Geometry Processing

speed

Time Temperature Type Strength Agitation

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Radiographic Contrast

Low contrast

Low contrast

High contrast

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 Radiographic Contrast

Film Contrast Subject Contrast

Film type Density Processing Scatter Wavelength Screens

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 Radiographic Contrast
Lack of Contrast Excessive Contrast
 Wavelength to short  Wavelength to long
 Fog  Incorrect developer
 Prolonged development
 Over exposure
 Under exposure
 Insufficient fixation

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 Radiographic Density

Incident light
Density = Log10
Transmitted light

 If the transmitted light is 1/10 of the incident light

Density = 1.0
 If the transmitted light is 1/100 of the incident light
Density = 2.0
 If the transmitted light is 1/1000 of the incident light
Density = 3.0
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 Radiographic Density

Lack of Density Excessive Density

 Under exposure  Over exposure
 Developer temp too low  Excessive development
 Exhausted developer  Developer temp too high
 Developer too weak  Too strong a solution

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Measuring Radiographic Density

 Density is measured by a densitometer

 A densitometer should be calibrated
using a density strip

4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0

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