Industrial Radiography Radiographie Industrielle Durchstrahlungsprüfung

Technical information

Image quality indicators in industrial

radiography

Ron Halmshaw and Tom Kowol

1. Introduction

In radiography-on-film, one usually has a wide

choice in the parameters of the radiographic
technique. For example, one has a choice of
source-to-specimen distance, choice of film type,
choice of film density, choice of X-ray kilovoltage, X-
rays or gamma-rays etc. The resulting radiograph
therefore can vary between high quality and poor
quality; quality in this case meaning the ability to
detect small critical flaws such as cracks. Fig. 1 Wire type IQI

Many standards have been written, both national

and international, giving advice or instructions on
the choice of technique details, in order to ensure
good quality radiographs and the usual method of
measuring image quality is to include some
standard detail in the image which will give a
measurable indication of image quality. Such
devices are known as “Image Quality Indicators
(IQIs)” or sometimes as “penetrameters”. IQIs must
obviously be small and relatively cheap to
Fig. 2 Step/Hole type IQI
manufacture if they are to be used on every
radiograph and should obviously be as sensitive as
possible to changes in the radiographic technique.

The quality of a radiographic image can be

assessed in terms of three factors:

1. Image sharpness. Usually, in radiography, the

inverse of sharpness - unsharpness or blurring - is
used.
Fig. 3 Plaque type IQI
2. Image contrast. The density change on a film for
a given thickness change in the specimen. If a small
image detail shows only faintly, this is a low contrast
image; if the detail is easily seen, this is a higher
contrast image.

3. Image Noise. For radiography-on-film, this is

effectively graininess. In radioscopy, there are
additional features affecting image noise.

A good design of IQI should be able to show Fig. 4 Duplex type IQI
changes in all these three factors.

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2. IQI Design be 10, 20, 30, 50mm according to the

various Standards and are held parallel
There are four broad patterns of IQI in use today - to one another in a low density plastic
the wire type, the step/hole type, the hole-in-plaque mount, with appropriate identification
type and the duplex wire type. The first three of symbols.
these are widely specified in many Standards for
film radiography. The fourth type, the duplex wire A typical wire IQI will contain six or
type IQI, is not yet used for routine film radiography, seven wires taken from the above series
largely because of its high production cost. It and is therefore relatively cheap to make
consists of a series of pairs of wires of high density in any material in which standard wires
material (tungsten and platinum) where each pair of are manufactured. EN 462 part 1:1994
wires of diameter (d) is spaced at a distance (d) shows typical construction details of one
apart. As one looks along the images of these wire design.
pairs, one reaches a pair where the individual wire
images are merged and one can no longer see two The wire IQI is placed on the specimen
separate wires. The diameter (d) of this pair is a and, on its image on the film, the
measure of the total effective unsharpness of the diameter of the thinnest discernible wire
radiographic image. This duplex wire IQI measures is taken as a measure of IQI (wire)
only unsharpness and is easy to use. At present, its sensitivity. In many Standards, the IQI
principal use is to measure the total unsharpness of (wire) sensitivity is specified as a
radioscopic (real-time radioscopy) screen images percentage value:
where there are many causes of unsharpness
acting simultaneously, and in laboratory diameter of thinnest discernible wire
S (wire IQI) = --------------------------------------------- x100%
experiments. The details of construction are penetrated thickness of specimen
described in IE-NDT Ltd’s catalogue and in EN-462,
part 5:1996. But, the use of such percentage values
has led to considerable confusion,
particularly in pipe-weld radiography,
and newer Standards specify acceptable
IQI values in terms of an actual wire
diameter (such as in the GOST Russian
Standard) or wire number (such as in
EN 462-1) which must be discernible on
the image. ASTM E 747-94 gives a
formula and charts for converting IQI
percentage sensitivity into 1T and 2T
levels.
Fig. 5 Effects of increasing geometric unsharpness
on an “element” in a duplex type IQI

Probably the most widely used IQI in radiography-

on-film is the wire type. Various patterns of wire type
IQIs are described in German, Scandinavian,
British, Japanese, Chinese, American CEN and ISO
Standards. These consist of a series of straight
wires of the same or similar material to the
specimen, the wires being of different diameters
taken from the series 0.10, 0.125, 0.16, 0.20, 0.25,
0.32, 0.40, 0.50, 0.63, 0.80, 1.00,… The wires may

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Fig. 7
All wires visible

Fig. 6 IQI sensitivity chart (usable with wires in

EN 462-1, DIN 54 109 and BS 3971 series)

Tables of acceptable wire diameters for different

specimen thickness are given in Standards such as
EN 462-3, EN 462-4 and EN 1435:1997. It is
important to note that the wire or step/hole IQI
sensitivity, whether specified as a percentage or
absolute value, is not consistent with specimen
thickness.

In some earlier Standards, the IQI sensitivity values

are advisory rather than mandatory.
Fig. 8
Some wires “just visible”
One of the greatest problems in using a wire IQI is
the term “just discernible” or “visible” as applied to
Some Standards specify that the wire
the images of the wires. As one looks along a series
IQIs are laid across a weld, some
of wire images, the larger diameter wires are easily
alongside the weld on a uniform
seen, then they become discontinuous, and finally
thickness, some on a thickness-
invisible. There is a stage when one can “see” parts
compensating shim alongside the weld.
of a wire length but not its whole length; one knows
Some Standards specify the IQI in the
therefore that this wire is present. EN 462-3 states
centre of the weld length under
“the image of a wire is accepted (as visible) if a
examination; some require IQIs to be
continuous length of at least 10mm is clearly visible
near the edge (end) of the film.
in a region of uniform optical density”. On a weld
which is not uniform in thickness, this criterion is not
A second widely-used IQI is the
always easy to apply and different radiologists (even
step/hole type in which a step wedge of
experienced film readers) can set themselves
the same or similar material to the
different standards of discernibility and so produce
specimen has one or two drill-holes in
different IQI sensitivity values from the same
each step, the hole diameter being the
radiograph.

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same as the step thickness: the holes must not be

chamfered. This type of IQI is shown in detail in EN
462-2:1994, AFNOR NFA 04 304 and BS
3971:1985. Typically, there are six steps, with two
holes in the steps thinner than 0.8mm. The step
thicknesses and hole diameters are from the same
series given for wire diameters. IQI step/hole
sensitivity is based on the smallest discernible hole
diameter, not the step visibility: if there are two
holes in the step, both must be discernible.
Fig. 10 IQIs (Penetrameters) to ASTM E
1742-95
This IQI is therefore more expensive to manufacture
(Formerly MIL-STD-453)
than the wire type in that small holes down to
0.125mm have to be accurately drilled, but several
ASTM E 1742-95 is the latest version of
European countries have preferred it to the wire IQI.
what used to be known as MIL-STD-453
There is less of a problem in assessing “just visible”
but the penetrameter design is
than with the wire type. It can be fabricated in
unchanged. Some US companies, such
materials in which wires are not practical.
as Pratt & Whitney, have their own
variants of the 1T, 2T, 4T plaque pattern
of IQI.

Normally a plaque in which T is 2% of

the specimen thickness is used (ASTM
E 1025-95) but, in some applications, a
1% plaque may be specified. If the 2T
hole in a 2% plaque is discernible, this is
quoted as 2-2T ASTM sensitivity level.
Fig. 9 IQI or “Penetrameter” to ASTM E 1025 At one time it was common practice to
specify a 2-2T level of sensitivity,
In general, a different pattern of IQI is specified in commonly called 2%, for most
the USA and these are still sometimes called radiographic applications but today there
“penetrameters”. There are several variations of the is a realisation that a much wider range
same basic design, the best known being ASTM is possible, from 1-1T to 4-2T. It is
and MIL types. These consist of uniform thickness important to realise that an American
plaques, thickness T, containing three drilled holes 2% sensitivity is not the same as 2% IQI
of diameter 1T, 2T, 4T, together with lead sensitivity as it would be specified in
identification letters or numbers. The plaque is Europe.
made of the same material as the specimen and the
IQI sensitivity is measured by the discernibility of the The American plaque type IQI has the
drilled holes. The smallest hole used is 0.01” same advantage as the step/hole type,
(0.25mm) for the 1T hole, and 0.02” (0.50mm) for in that judgement is based on the
the 2T hole, although these are still described as discernibility of the image of a small hole
1T, 2T etc. rather than a wire. But, on thin
specimens, there can be confusion that
the 1T and 2T holes may not be truly 1T
and 2T in diameter.

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2.1 Placement of IQIs to several attempts to design a more

sensitive IQI, such as using narrow slots
Standard practice is to place the IQI on the side of or notches on the IQI (the Russian
the specimen facing the radiation source, on the GOST standard is an example), but the
grounds that this is the region of the image where only useful advance to date is the more
geometric unsharpness and therefore image expensive duplex wire IQI.
blurring, will be the largest. Most tables of IQI values
assume that the IQI is in this position. For radioscopy, with an image on a
screen, some authorities ask for a wire
IQI sensitivity and a measure of
unsharpness from a duplex wire IQI, but
this dual criterion has not yet been
specified for film radiography.

4 Quality

Fig 11 Normal placement of an IQI Given that IQI sensitivity is the only, if
imperfect, guide available to determine
In the case of double-wall/single-image pipe weld whether an individual radiograph is
radiography, where there is no access to the inside capable of revealing the defects which
of the pipe, the only practical place for the IQI is on fracture mechanics and other experts
the film side of the weld, that is, effectively on the consider significant, obviously the IQI
film cassette. If the IQI is used in this position, a itself should be as near perfect as
lead identification letter (F or FS) should be placed possible. For wire type IQIs, this means
on the IQI. In this position, the IQI image is ensuring that only wires of the specified
completely insensitive to geometric unsharpness material and specified diameter are
factors such as source-to-film distance or source placed in the specified positions within
diameter and is an indication of contrast only. each IQI. For step/hole and plaque type
Normally, the IQI readings are 1 - 2 wires or holes IQIs, the material, thickness and hole
better than with the IQI on the source side of the diameters are critical. For duplex IQIs,
same specimen. Some Standards ask for a trial the positioning of the wires within each
exposure on a sample piece of pipe, with IQIs on pair is even more critical. Whatever the
both source and film sides of the weld, for type, it is important that any
comparison. Some experts regard the IQI reading encapsulation does not obscure the
from the film side position as misleading and of little image of the wires or holes and that the
practical value, but tables of IQI sensitivities for the radio-opaque identification is not so
IQI on the film side are included in EN 1453:1997 dense as to cause distracting glare
and EN 462-3:1997. when the radiograph is viewed. IQIs are
supplied to the user in a ready-to-use,
encapsulated form, so there is little
3 Flaw Sensitivity practical possibility for the user to check
them against the Standard. Instead, the
IQI sensitivity values are not flaw sensitivity values. user has to rely on the manufacturer’s
Experiments and theory have shown that both the own quality assurance and quality
wire and step/hole pattern of IQI respond only control procedures. As there is no
slightly to sharpness factors, in comparison to crack specific scheme to audit and register
images. Both patterns of IQI largely measure image manufacturers of IQIs, it is prudent to
contrast only. The image unsharpness must change check that the manufacturer has a
considerably before it is indicated by any change in Quality System which is registered
wire or hole IQI sensitivity. This inadequacy has led against the requirements of ISO 9001.

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5 Conclusions

None of the existing designs of IQIs is sufficiently

sensitive to image sharpness parameters, except
the duplex wire type, which is costly. For metals
where wire can be drawn, the wire type IQI is
relatively cheap to manufacture and very fine wires,
suitable for use on thin specimens, are available.
For non-metals, the step/hole type is the most
convenient in that it can be fabricated in any
material, although it cannot easily be made for use
on very thin specimens.

Some experience and skill is needed in “reading”

the images of the wire type IQI and, for this reason,
some authorities prefer the step/hole or plaque
types.

The ideal design, sensitive to all technique

parameters and cheap to manufacture, has still to
be discovered. As such perfection is unlikely to be
achieved in the foreseeable future, we must make
best use of the time honoured, if imperfect, tools we
have available by ensuring that Standards issuing
authorities, practitioners of NDT and manufacturers
of IQIs understand their importance and limitations.

Ron Halmshaw is a well known consultant in

Industrial Radiology and the author of many books
on the subject. Tom Kowol is Technical Director of
IE–NDT Ltd

© Copyright by IE-NDT Ltd 2001

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