Industrial Instrumentation Ch.E-401

Industrial Instrumentation
Ch.E- 401
Fluid Flow Measurement Methods
2
 Pressure-based flowmeters
 Laminar flowmeters
 Variable-area flowmeters
 Velocity-based flowmeters
 Positive displacement flowmeters
 True mass flowmeters
Variable-area flowmeters
3
 An variable-area flowmeter is one where the fluid must pass through a
restriction whose area increases with flow rate. This stands in contrast to
flowmeters such as orifice plates and venturi tubes where the cross-sectional
area of the flow element remains fixed.
Rotameters
4
 The simplest example
of a variable-area
flowmeter is the
rotameter, which uses
a solid object (called a
plummet or float) as a
flow indicator,
suspended in the midst
of a tapered tube:
Rotameters
5
 As fluid flows upward through the tube, a pressure differential develops
across the plummet. This pressure differential, acting on the effective
area of the plummet body, develops an upward force (F = PA).
 If this force exceeds the weight of the plummet, the plummet moves up.
As the plummet moves farther up in the tapered tube, the area between
the plummet and the tube walls (through which the fluid must travel)
grows larger.
 This increased flowing area allows the fluid to make it past the plummet
without having to accelerate as much, thereby developing less pressure
drop across the plummet’s body.
 At some point, the flowing area reaches a point where the pressure-
induced force on the plummet body exactly matches the weight of the
plummet. This is the point in the tube where the plummet stops moving,
indicating flow rate by it position relative to a scale mounted (or etched)
on the outside of the tube.
Rotameters
6
 The following rotameter uses a
spherical plummet, suspended
in a flow tube machined from a
solid block of clear plastic. An
adjustable valve at the bottom
of the rotameter provides a
means for adjusting gas flow:
Rotameters
7
 The same basic flow equation used for pressure-based flow elements
holds true for rotameters as well:
 However, the difference in this application is that the value inside the
radicand is constant, since the pressure difference will remain constant
and the fluid density will likely remain constant as well. Thus, k will
change in proportion to Q. The only variable within k relevant to plummet
position is the flowing area between the plummet and the tube walls.
 Most rotameters are indicating devices only. They may be equipped to
transmit flow information electronically by adding sensors to detect the
plummet’s position in the tube, but this is not common practice.
 Rotameters are very commonly used as purge flow indicators for pressure
and level measurement systems requiring a constant flow of purge fluid.
Such rotameters are usually equipped with hand-adjustable needle valves
for manual regulation of purge fluid flow rate.
Fluid Flow Measurement Methods
8
 Pressure-based flowmeters
 Laminar flowmeters
 Variable-area flowmeters
 Velocity-based flowmeters
 Positive displacement flowmeters
 True mass flowmeters
Velocity-based flowmeters
9  The Law of Continuity for fluids states that the product of mass density
(ρ), cross-sectional pipe area (A) and average velocity (v) must remain
constant through any continuous length of pipe:
 If the density of the fluid is not subject to change as it travels through the
pipe (a very good assumption for liquids), we may simplify the Law of
Continuity by eliminating the density terms from the equation:
Turbine flowmeters
10  Turbine flowmeters use a free-spinning turbine wheel to measure fluid
velocity, much like a miniature windmill installed in the flow stream.
 The fundamental design goal of a turbine flowmeter is to make the
turbine element as free-spinning as possible, so no torque will be required
to sustain the turbine’s rotation. If this goal is achieved, the turbine blades
will achieve a rotating (tip) velocity directly proportional to the linear
velocity of the fluid, whether that fluid is a gas or a liquid:
Turbine flowmeters
11  The mathematical relationship between fluid velocity and turbine tip
velocity – assuming frictionless conditions – is a ratio defined by the
tangent of the turbine blade angle:
 For a 45o blade angle, the relationship is 1:1, with tip velocity
equaling fluid velocity. Smaller blade angles (each blade closer to
parallel with the fluid velocity vector) result in the tip velocity being
a fractional proportion of fluid velocity.
Turbine flowmeters
12  Turbine tip velocity is quite easy to sense using a magnetic sensor, generating a
voltage pulse each time one of the ferromagnetic turbine blades passes by.
 Traditionally, this sensor is nothing more than a coil of wire in proximity to a
stationary magnet, called a pickup coil or pickoff coil because it “picks” (senses)
the passing of the turbine blades.
 Magnetic flux through the coil’s center increases and decreases as the passing of
the steel turbine blades presents a varying reluctance (“resistance” to magnetic
flux), causing voltage pulses equal in frequency to the number of blades passing
by each second. It is the frequency of this signal that represents fluid velocity,
and therefore volumetric flow rate.
A cut-away demonstration model

of a turbine flowmeter is shown.
Turbine flowmeters
13  Note the sets of “flow conditioner” vanes immediately before and after the turbine
wheel in the photograph. As one might expect, turbine flowmeters are very sensitive
to swirl in the process fluid flowstream. In order to achieve high accuracy, the flow
profile must not be swirling in the vicinity of the turbine. A minimum straight-pipe
length of 20 pipe diameters upstream and 5 pipe diameters downstream is typical for
turbine flowmeters in order to dissipate swirl from piping disturbances.
Turbine flowmeters
14  In an electronic turbine flowmeter, volumetric flow is directly and linearly
proportional to pickup coil output frequency. We may express this
relationship in the form of an equation:
Some Considerations
15  A problem common to all turbine flowmeters is that of the turbine
“coasting” when the fluid flow suddenly stops. This is more often a
problem in batch processes than continuous processes, where the fluid
flow is regularly turned on and shut off. This problem may be minimized
by configuring the measurement system to ignore turbine flowmeter
signals any time the automatic shutoff valve reaches the “shut” position.
This way, when the shutoff valve closes and fluid flow immediately
halts, any coasting of the turbine wheel will be irrelevant.
 Another problem common to all turbine flowmeters is lubrication of the
turbine bearings. Frictionless motion of the turbine wheel is essential for
accurate flow measurement, which is a daunting design goal for the
flowmeter manufacturing engineers.
 Process fluid viscosity is another source of friction for the turbine wheel.
Fluids with high viscosity (e.g. heavy oils) will tend to slow down the
turbine’s rotation even if the turbine rotates on frictionless bearings.
Vortex flowmeters
16
 When a fluid moves with high Reynolds number past a stationary object (a
“bluff body”), there is a tendency for the fluid to form vortices on either
side of the object.
 Each vortex will form, then detach from the object and continue to move
with the flowing gas or liquid, one side at a time in alternating fashion.
This phenomenon is known as vortex shedding, and the pattern of moving
vortices carried downstream of the stationary object is known as a vortex
street.
Vortex flowmeters
17  It was determined that the distance between successive vortices
downstream of the stationary object is relatively constant, and directly
proportional to the width of the object, for a wide range of Reynolds
number values.
 If we view these vortices as crests of a continuous wave, the distance
between vortices may be represented by the wavelength (λ) of the wave.
 The proportionality between object width (d) and vortex street
wavelength (λ) is called the Strouhal number (S), approximately equal to
0.17
Vortex flowmeters
18  If a differential pressure sensor is installed immediately downstream of
the stationary object in such an orientation that it detects the passing
vortices as pressure variations, an alternating signal will be detected
 The frequency of this alternating pressure signal is directly proportional
to fluid velocity past the object, since the wavelength is constant.
Vortex flowmeters
19  Like a turbine flowmeter with an electronic “pickup” sensor to detect the
passage of rotating turbine blades, the output frequency of a vortex
flowmeter is linearly proportional to volumetric flow rate.
 The pressure sensors used in vortex flowmeters are not standard
differential pressure transmitters, since the vortex frequency is too high to
be successfully detected by such bulky instruments. Instead, the sensors
are typically piezoelectric crystals.
 These pressure sensors need not be calibrated, since the amplitude of the
pressure waves detected is irrelevant. Only the frequency of the waves
matter for measuring flow rate.
Vortex flowmeters
20
21 Advantages and Disadvantages
 Since vortex flowmeters have no moving parts, they do not suffer the
problems of wear and lubrication facing turbine meters. There is no
moving element to “coast” as in a turbine flowmeter if fluid flow suddenly
stops, which means vortex flowmeters are better suited to measuring
erratic flows.
 A significant disadvantage of vortex meters is a behavior known as low
flow cutoff, where the flowmeter simply stops working below a certain
flow rate. The reason for this is laminar flow: at low flow rates (i.e. low
Reynolds number values) the effects of fluid viscosity overwhelm fluid
momentum, preventing vortices from forming. This cessation of vortices
causes the vortex flowmeter to register absolutely no flow at all even when
there is still some (laminar) flow through the pipe. At high flow rates (i.e.
high Reynolds number values), fluid momentum is enough to overcome
viscosity and produce vortices, and the vortex flowmeter works just fine.
22 Magnetic flowmeters
 When an electrical conductor moves perpendicular to a magnetic field, a
voltage is induced in that conductor perpendicular to both the magnetic
flux lines and the direction of motion. This phenomenon is known as
electromagnetic induction, and it is the basic principle upon which all
electro-mechanical generators operate.
 In a generator mechanism, the conductor in question is typically a coil (or
set of coils) made of copper wire. However, there is no reason the
conductor must be made of copper wire. Any electrically conductive
substance in motion is sufficient to electromagnetically induce a voltage,
even if that substance is a liquid. Therefore, electromagnetic induction is a
technique applicable to the measurement of liquid flow rates.
Magnetic flowmeters
23  Consider water flowing through a
pipe, with a magnetic field passing
perpendicularly through the pipe:
 The direction of liquid flow cuts
perpendicularly through the lines
of magnetic flux, generating a
voltage along an axis
perpendicular to both. Metal
electrodes opposite each other in
the pipe wall intercept this voltage,
making it readable to an electronic
circuit.
Magnetic flowmeters
24  Consider water flowing through a pipe, with a magnetic field passing
perpendicularly through the pipe:
 The direction of liquid flow cuts perpendicularly through the lines of
magnetic flux, generating a voltage along an axis perpendicular to both.
Metal electrodes opposite each other in the pipe wall intercept this voltage,
making it readable to an electronic circuit.
 Assuming a fixed magnetic field strength (constant B) and an electrode

spacing equal to the fixed diameter of the pipe (constant l = d), the only
variable capable of influencing the magnitude of induced voltage is velocity
(v).
 In our example, v is not the velocity of a wire segment, but rather the
average velocity of the liquid flowstream (vavg).
Magnetic flowmeters
25
 This formula will successfully predict flow rate only for absolutely perfect
circumstances. In order to compensate for inevitable imperfections, a
“proportionality constant” (k) is usually included in the formula
26 Magnetic flowmeters
 A few conditions must be met for this formula to successfully infer
volumetric flow rate from induced voltage:
 The liquid must be a reasonably good conductor of electricity (note: it is
okay if the conducting fluid contains some non-conducting solids; the
conductive fluid surrounding the non-conducting solid matter still provides
electrical continuity between the electrodes necessary for induction)
 The pipe must be completely filled with liquid to ensure contact with both
probes as well as to ensure flow across the entire cross-section of the pipe
 The flowtube must be properly grounded to avoid errors caused by stray
electric currents in the liquid
27 Magnetic flowmeters-Advantages
 Magnetic flowmeters exhibit several advantages over other types of
flowmeter. They are fairly tolerant of swirl and other large-scale
turbulent fluid behavior, because the induced voltage is proportional
only to the perpendicular velocity of the conductor, in this case the
velocity of the fluid along the centerline of the flowtube. As such,
magnetic flowmeters do not require the long straight-runs of pipe
upstream and downstream that orifice plates do, which is a great
advantage in many piping systems.
 Additionally, the wide-open bore of a magnetic flowmeter’s tube means
there is absolutely nothing to restrict the flow, resulting in extremely
low permanent pressure loss. The lack of any obstruction within the
path of fluid flow means magnetic flowmeters are quite tolerant of
solids within the liquid flowstream
 In fact, magnetic flowmeters are the dominant flowmeter technology
used in wastewater, wood pulping, and food processing industries for
this very reason.
28 Ultrasonic flowmeters
 Ultrasonic flowmeters measure fluid velocity by passing high-
frequency sound waves along the fluid flow path.
 Fluid motion influences the propagation of these sound waves, which
may then be measured to infer fluid velocity.
 Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flowmeters exist: Doppler and
transit-time.
 Both types of ultrasonic flowmeter work by transmitting a high-
frequency sound wave into the fluid stream (the incident pulse) and
analyzing the received pulse.
29 Ultrasonic flowmeters-Doppler Effect
 Doppler flowmeters exploit the Doppler effect, which is the shifting of
frequency resulting from waves emitted by or reflected by a moving object.
 A common realization of the Doppler effect is the perceived shift in
frequency of a horn’s report from a moving vehicle: as the vehicle
approaches the listener, the pitch of the horn seems higher than normal;
when the vehicle passes the listener and begins to move away, the horn’s
pitch appears to suddenly “shift down” to a lower frequency. In reality, the
horn’s frequency never changes, but the velocity of the approaching vehicle
relative to the stationary listener acts to “compress” the sonic vibrations in
the air. When the vehicle moves away, the sound waves are “stretched”
from the perspective of the listener.
 The same effect takes place if a sound wave is aimed at a moving
object, and the echo’s frequency is compared to the transmitted
(incident) frequency.
 If the reflected wave returns from a bubble advancing toward the
ultrasonic transducer, the reflected frequency will be greater than the
incident frequency.
 If the flow reverses direction and the reflected wave returns from a
bubble traveling away from the transducer, the reflected frequency will
be less than the incident frequency.
 This matches the phenomenon of a vehicle’s horn pitch seemingly
increasing as the vehicle approaches a listener and seemingly
decreasing as the vehicle moves away from a listener.
 The same effect takes place if a sound wave is aimed at a moving
object, and the echo’s frequency is compared to the transmitted
(incident) frequency.
 If the reflected wave returns from a bubble advancing toward the
ultrasonic transducer, the reflected frequency will be greater than the
incident frequency.
 If the flow reverses direction and the reflected wave returns from a
bubble traveling away from the transducer, the reflected frequency will
be less than the incident frequency.
 This matches the phenomenon of a vehicle’s horn pitch seemingly
increasing as the vehicle approaches a listener and seemingly
decreasing as the vehicle moves away from a listener.
 A Doppler flowmeter bounces sound waves off of bubbles or particulate material in
the flow stream, measuring the frequency shift and inferring fluid velocity from the
magnitude of that shift.
 The requirement for there to be objects in the flow stream large enough to reflect
sound waves limits Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters to liquid applications. “Dirty”
liquids such as slurries and wastewater, or liquids carrying a substantial number of
gas bubbles (e.g. carbonated beverages) are good candidate fluids for this
technology. It is unrealistic to expect that any gas stream will be carrying liquid
droplets or solid matter large enough to reflect strong echoes, and so Doppler
flowmeters cannot be used to measure gas flow.
 The mathematical relationship between fluid velocity (v) and the Doppler
frequency shift (Δf) is as follows, for fluid velocities much less than the
speed of sound through that fluid (v << c):
 A very important consideration for Doppler ultrasonic flow measurement is
that the calibration of the flowmeter varies with the speed of sound through
the fluid.
 As c increases, Δf must proportionately decrease for any fixed volumetric

flow rate Q. Since the flowmeter is designed to directly interpret flow rate
in terms of Δf, an increase in c causing a decrease in Δf will thus register as
a decrease in Q.
 This means the speed of sound for a fluid must be precisely known in order
for a Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter to accurately measure flow.
 The speed of sound through any fluid is a function of that medium’s density
and bulk modulus (how easily it compresses):
 Temperature affects liquid density, and composition (the chemical

constituency of the liquid) affects bulk modulus. Thus, temperature and
composition both are influencing factors for Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter
calibration. Pressure is not a concern here, since pressure only affects the
density of gases, and we already know Doppler flowmeters only function
with liquids.
36 Ultrasonic flowmeters-Transit-time
 Transit-time flowmeters, sometimes called counterpropagation flowmeters,
use a pair of opposed sensors to measure the time difference between a
sound pulse traveling with the fluid flow versus a sound pulse traveling
against the fluid flow.
 Since the motion of fluid tends to carry a sound wave along, the sound
pulse transmitted downstream will make the journey faster than a sound
pulse transmitted upstream
 The rate of volumetric flow through a transit-time flowmeter is a simple
function of the upstream and downstream propagation times:
 An interesting characteristic of transit-time velocity measurement is

that the ratio of transit time difference over transit time product remains
constant with changes in the speed of sound through the fluid
 Not only are transit-time ultrasonic flowmeters immune to changes in
the speed of sound, but they are also able to measure that sonic velocity
independent of the flow rate. The equation for calculating speed of
sound based on upstream and downstream propagation times is as
follows:
39 Ultrasonic flowmeters Considerations
 A requirement for reliable operation of a transit-time ultrasonic
flowmeter is that the process fluid be free from gas bubbles or solid
particles which might scatter or obstruct the sound waves.
 Note that this is precisely the opposite requirement of Doppler
ultrasonic flowmeters, which require bubbles or particles to reflect
sound waves.
 These opposing requirements neatly distinguish applications suitable
for transit-time flowmeters from applications suitable for Doppler
flowmeters, and also raise the possibility of using transit-time ultrasonic
flowmeters on gas flowstreams as well as on liquid flowstreams.
40 Optical flowmeters
 A relatively recent development in industrial flow measurement is the
use of light to measure the velocity of a fluid through a pipe. One such
technology referred to as Laser-Two-Focus (L2F) uses two laser beams
to detect the passage of any light-scattering particles carried along by
the moving fluid:
Optical flowmeters-L2F optical flowmeter
41
Optical flowmeters-L2F optical flowmeter
42
 As a particle passes through each laser beam, it redirects the light away
from its normal straightline path in such a way that an optical sensor (one
per beam) detects up the scattered light and generates a pulse signal.
 As that same particle passes through the second beam, the scattered light
excites a second optical sensor to generate a corresponding pulse signal.
The time delay between two successive pulses is inversely proportional
to the velocity of that particle.
 This technique is analogous to the that used by law-enforcement officers
to measure the speed of a vehicle on a highway when viewed from an
aircraft: measure how much time elapses as the vehicle passes between
two marks on the road spaced a known distance from each other.
 L2F flowmeters of course rely on the continual presence of light-
scattering particles within the fluid. These particles could be either liquid
droplets or solids within a gas stream, or they could be solid particles or
bubbles in a liquid stream.

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Industrial Instrumentation

 Positive displacement flowmeters

 True mass flowmeters

 Positive displacement flowmeters

 True mass flowmeters

A cut-away demonstration model

 Assuming a fixed magnetic field strength (constant B) and an electrode

 As c increases, Δf must proportionately decrease for any fixed volumetric

 Temperature affects liquid density, and composition (the chemical

 An interesting characteristic of transit-time velocity measurement is

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