The most common principals for fluid flow metering are:

 Differential Pressure Flowmeters

 Velocity Flowmeters

 Positive Displacement Flowmeters

 Mass Flowmeters

 Open Channel Flowmeters

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

In a differential pressure drop device the flow is calculated by measuring the pressure drop over an
obstructions inserted in the flow. The differential pressure flowmeter is based on the Bernoullis Equation, where
the pressure drop and the further measured signal is a function of the square flow speed.

The most common types of differential pressure flowmeters are:

 Orifice Plates

 Flow Nozzles

 Venturi Tubes

 Variable Area - Rotameters

Orifice Plate
With an orifice plate, the fluid flow is measured through the difference in pressure from the upstream side to the
downstream side of a partially obstructed pipe. The plate obstructing the flow offers a precisely measured
obstruction that narrows the pipe and forces the flowing fluid to constrict.

The orifice plates are simple, cheap and can be delivered for almost any application in any material.
The TurnDown Rate for orifice plates are less than 5:1. Their accuracy are poor at low flow rates. A high
accuracy depend on an orifice plate in good shape, with a sharp edge to the upstream side. Wear reduces the
accuracy.
 Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Meters

Venturi Tube
Due to simplicity and dependability, the Venturi tube flowmeter is often used in applications where it's
necessary with higher TurnDown Rates, or lower pressure drops, than the orifice plate can provide.
In the Venturi Tube the fluid flowrate is measured by reducing the cross sectional flow area in the flow path,
generating a pressure difference. After the constricted area, the fluid is passes through a pressure recovery exit
section, where up to 80% of the differential pressure generated at the constricted area, is recovered.

With proper instrumentation and flow calibrating, the Venturi Tube flowrate can be reduced to about 10% of its
full scale range with proper accuracy. This provides a TurnDown Rate 10:1.
  Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Meters

Flow Nozzles
Flow nozzles are often used as measuring elements for air and gas flow in industrial applications.

The flow nozzle is relative simple and cheap, and available for many applications in many materials.
The TurnDown Rate and accuracy can be compared with the orifice plate.
 Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi Meters
The Sonic Nozzle - Critical (Choked) Flow Nozzle
When a gas accelerate through a nozzle, the velocity increase and the pressure and the gas density decrease.
The maximum velocity is achieved at the throat, the minimum area, where it breaks Mach 1 or sonic. At this
point it's not possible to increase the flow by lowering the downstream pressure. The flow is choked.
This situation is used in many control systems to maintain fixed, accurate, repeatable gas flow rates unaffected
by the downstream pressure.

Recovery of Pressure Drop in Orifices, Nozzles and Venturi Meters

After the pressure difference has been generated in the differential pressure flow meter, the fluid pass through
the pressure recovery exit section, where the differential pressure generated at the constricted area is partly
recovered.
As we can see, the pressure drop in orifice plates are significant higher than in the venturi tubes.

Variable Area Flowmeter or Rotameter

The rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a larger end at the top, and a
metering float which is free to move within the tube. Fluid flow causes the float to rise in the tube as the upward
pressure differential and buoyancy of the fluid overcome the effect of gravity.
The float rises until the annular area between the float and tube increases sufficiently to allow a state of
dynamic equilibrium between the upward differential pressure and buoyancy factors, and downward gravity
factors.
The height of the float is an indication of the flow rate. The tube can be calibrated and graduated in appropriate
flow units.
The rotameter meter typically have a TurnDown Ratio up to 12:1. The accuracy may be as good as 1% of full
scale rating.
Magnetic floats can be used for alarm and signal transmission functions.

Velocity Flowmeters
In a velocity flowmeter the flow is calculated by measuring the speed in one or more points in the flow, and
integrating the flow speed over the flow area.

Pitot Tubes
The pitot tube are one the most used (and cheapest) ways to measure fluid flow, especially in air applications
as ventilation and HVAC systems, even used in airplanes for the speed measurent.

The pitot tube measures the fluid flow velocity by converting the kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy.
The use of the pitot tube is restricted to point measuring. With the "annubar", or multi-orifice pitot probe, the
dynamic pressure can be measured across the velocity profile, and the annubar obtains an averaging effect.

Calorimetric Flowmeter
The calorimetric principle for fluid flow measurement is based on two temperature sensors in close contact with
the fluid but thermal insulated from each other.

One of the two sensors is constantly heated and the cooling effect of the flowing fluid is used to monitor the
flowrate. In a stationary (no flow) fluid condition there is a constant temperature difference between the two
temperature sensors. When the fluid flow increases, heat energy is drawn from the heated sensor and the
temperature difference between the sensors are reduced. The reduction is proportional to the flow rate of the
fluid.

Response times will vary due the thermal conductivity of the fluid. In general lower thermal conductivity require
higher velocity for proper measurement.
The calorimetric flowmeter can achieve relatively high accuracy at low flow rates.

Turbine Flowmeter
There is many different manufacturing design of turbine flow meters, but in general they are all based on the
same simple principle:
If a fluid moves through a pipe and acts on the vanes of a turbine, the turbine will start to spin and rotate. The
rate of spin is measured to calculate the flow.

The turndown ratios may be more than 100:1 if the turbine meter is calibrated for a single fluid and used at
constant conditions. Accuracy may be better than +/-0,1%.

Vortex Flow Meter

An obstruction in a fluid flow creates vortices in a downstream flow. Every obstruction has a critical fluid flow
speed at which vortex shedding occurs. Vortex shedding is the instance where alternating low pressure zones
are generated in the downstream.

These alternating low pressure zones cause the obstruction to move towards the low pressure zone. With
sensors gauging the vortices the strength of the flow can be measured.
 The Vortex Flowmeter Principle - An introduction to the vortex
flowmeter principle.

Electromagnetic Flowmeter
An electromagnetic flowmeter operate on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction that states that a voltage
will be induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The liquid serves as the conductor and the
magnetic field is created by energized coils outside the flow tube.
The voltage produced is directly proportional to the flow rate. Two electrodes mounted in the pipe wall detect
the voltage which is measured by a secondary element.
Electromagnetic flowmeters can measure difficult and corrosive liquids and slurries, and they can measure flow
in both directions with equal accuracy.
Electromagnetic flowmeters have a relatively high power consumption and can only be used for electrical
conductive fluids as water.
 The Electromagnetic Flowmeter Principle - An introduction to the
electromagnetic flowmeter principle

Ultrasonic Doppler Flowmeter

The effect of motion of a sound source and its effect on the frequency of the sound was observed and
described by Christian Johann Doppler.
The frequency of the reflected signal is modified by the velocity and direction of the fluid flow
If a fluid is moving towards a transducer, the frequency of the returning signal will increase. As fluid moves
away from a transducer, the frequency of the returning signal decrease.
The frequency difference is equal to the reflected frequency minus the originating frequency and can be use to
calculate the fluid flow speed.
 The Ultrasonic Doppler and Time of Flight Flowmeter

 An Ultrasonic Flowmeter Tutorial - A basic tutorial about ultrasonic flowmeters.

Positive Displacement Flowmeter

The positive displacement flowmeter measures process fluid flow by precision-fitted rotors as flow measuring
elements. Known and fixed volumes are displaced between the rotors. The rotation of the rotors are
proportional to the volume of the fluid being displaced.
The number of rotations of the rotor is counted by an integral electronic pulse transmitter and converted to
volume and flow rate.
The positive displacement rotor construction can be done in several ways:
 Reciprocating piston meters are of single and multiple-piston types.

 Oval-gear meters have two rotating, oval-shaped gears with synchronized, close fitting teeth. A
fixed quantity of liquid passes through the meter for each revolution. Shaft rotation can be
monitored to obtain specific flow rates.

 Nutating disk meters have moveable disks mounted on a concentric sphere located in spherical side-
walled chambers. The pressure of the liquid passing through the measuring chamber causes the
disk to rock in a circulating path without rotating about its own axis. It is the only moving part in the
measuring chamber.

 Rotary vane meters consists of equally divided, rotating impellers, two or more compartments, inside
the meter's housings. The impellers are in continuous contact with the casing. A fixed volume of
liquid is swept to the meter's outlet from each compartment as the impeller rotates. The revolutions of
the impeller are counted and registered in volumetric units.

The positive displacement flowmeter may be used for all relatively nonabrasive fluids such as heating oils,
lubrication oils, polymer additives, animal and vegetable fat, printing ink, freon, and many more.
Accuracy may be up to �0.1% of full rate with a TurnDown of 70:1 or more.

Mass Flowmeters
Mass meters measure the mass flow rate directly.

Thermal Flowmeter
The thermal mass flowmeter operates independent of density, pressure, and viscosity. Thermal meters use a
heated sensing element isolated from the fluid flow path where the flow stream conducts heat from the sensing
element. The conducted heat is directly proportional to the mass flow rate and the he temperature difference is
calculated to mass flow.
The accuracy of the thermal mass flow device depends on the calibrations reliability of the actual process and
variations in the temperature, pressure, flow rate, heat capacity and viscosity of the fluid.

Coriolis Flowmeter
Direct mass measurement sets Coriolis flowmeters apart from other technologies. Mass measurement is not
sensitive to changes in pressure, temperature, viscosity and density. With the ability to measure liquids, slurries
and gases, Coriolis flowmeters are universal meters.
Coriolis Mass Flowmeter uses the Coriolis effect to measure the amount of mass moving through the element.
The fluid to be measured runs through a U-shaped tube that is caused to vibrate in an angular harmonic
oscillation. Due to the Coriolis forces, the tubes will deform and an additional vibration component will be added
to the oscillation. This additional component causes a phase shift on some places of the tubes which can be
measured with sensors.
The Coriolis flow meters are in general very accurate, better than +/-0,1% with an turndown rate more than
100:1. The Coriolis meter can also be used to measure the fluids density.

Open Channel Flowmeters

A common method of measuring flow through an open channel is to measure the height of the liquid as it
passes over an obstruction as a flume or weir in the channel.
Common used is the Sharp-Crested Weir, the V-Notch Weir, the Cipolletti weir, the Rectangular-Notch Weir, the
Parshall Flume or Venturi Flume.

1.0 Introduction
Sensors to measure process conditions and valves to influence process operations are essential for all
aspects of engineering practice. Engineers want to design and operate processes that remain in safe
conditions, produce the desired amounts of high quality products and are profitable. Therefore, engineers
must provide measuring devices for key variables and valves (or other devices, such as variable speed
electric motors) to influence of “steer” the process. This site provides educational material on sensors
and valves for use in the process industries.

While sensors and valves are important in all aspects of engineering, they assume greatest importance in
the study of automatic control, which is termed process controlwhen applied in the process industries.
Process control deals with the regulation of processes by applying the feedback principle using various
computing devices, principally digital computation. Process control requires sensors for measuring
variables and valves for implementing decisions. Therefore, the presentation of this material is designed
to complement other learning topics in process control.

Since successful process control requires appropriate instrumentation, engineers should understand the
principles of common instruments introduced in this section. The descriptions in this section cover the
basic principles and information on the performance for standard, commercially available instruments.
Thus, selection and sizing of standard equipment is emphasized, not designing equipment “from scratch”.

Perhaps the best advice for engineering students is that “instruments are always incorrect”. This
surprising statement is not intended to undermine reasonable confidence in applications of sensors and
valves. However, new engineers sometimes tend to accept instruments as exactlycorrect without
evaluating the likely errors associated with their use. Depending on the instrument, the process operating
conditions and the application, the instrument errors can be small enough to be insignificant or can be
large enough to seriously degrade control performance. The engineer must evaluate each application
during the process design and select an appropriate instrument.

Lets remember that chemical engineers work in a wide range of industries: chemicals, pulp and paper,
microelectronis, mineral processing, metals production, polymer processing, power generation, and more.
Perhaps, many of the details on sensors and valves might not be applicable to every industry. However,
the principles used to select the appropriate sessors and final elements can be applied to essentially all
industries. Therefore,

The Material in this document is gathered from a large array of public-domain sources, and it provides a
good introduction to the principles of common instrumentations and a summary of they key features
important for control application. However, many important sensors are not addressed here, and new
equipment is becoming available. Therefore, readers should gather information used to specify, procure,
install, and maintain industrial equipment from reliable and up-to-date sources, such as testing
laboratories, engineering handbooks, professional and industrial organizations, and equipment
suppliers
The following topics are addressed at this site.
2. Sensors
3. Valves
4. Signal transmission for process control
5. Instrumentation safety
6. Control equipment cost
7. Process Drawings
8. Solved examples
9. Terminology
10. Conclusions
11. References
Each section contains valuable introductory material and links to excellent resources on the WWW for
further study and solving open-ended problems in university courses and industrial practice.

2.0 Sensors

Sensors are used for process monitoring and for process control. These are essential elements of safe and
profitable plant operation that can be achieved only if the proper sensors are selected and installed in the
correct locations. While sensors differ greatly in their physical principles, their selection can be guided
by the analysis of a small set of issues, which are presented in this section. Each issue is introduced here
with process examples, and details on the issues are provided in the remainder of this site for the most
common sensors in the process industries.

Exercise 2.01 You have just started your first

job as an engineer. You supervisor presents you
with the process drawing in Figure 2.01. She
 asks you to provide sensors for this process. “Please have your proposal ready tomorrow for the design review meeting.”

You have two challenges.

What variables should be measured?
What sensor should be specified for each measurement?

For guidance on selecting the process variables, see Chapter 2 and Chapter 24 in Marlin (2000). Guidance on selecting sensors is pro

Figu

When defining sensor requirements and principles, the engineer should use terminology that has a unique
meaning, which is not easily achieved. Therefore, the engineer should refer to accepted standards and
use the terminology provided in the standards. For instrumentation, standards published by the ISA
(formerly, Instrument Society of America) are the most relevant. This section uses terms from the ISA
wherever possible.

2.0.1 Major issues for selecting sensors

The major issues in sensor selection are summarized in the following. The relative importance of each
issue depends upon the specific application; for example, one application might require excellent
accuracy, while another might require only moderate accuracy, but high reliability. Generally, we find
that the greater the requirements for good performance, the higher the cost for purchase and maintenance.
Therefore, we must find the proper balance of performance and cost, rather than always specify the best
performing sensor.

ISSUE COMMENTS
  Accuracy - Accuracy is the degree of Accuracy is usually expressed in
conformity of the measured value with the engineering units or as a percentage of the
accepted standard or ideal value, which we can sensor range, for example:
take as the true physical variable. Accuracy is
usually reported as a range of maximum Thermocouple temperature sensor with
inaccuracy. These ranges should have a accuracy of  1.5 K.
significance level, such as 95% of the
measurements will be within the inaccuracy Orifice flow meters with accuracy of ±3%
range. of maximum flow range.

Accuracy is needed for some variables, such as

product quality, but it is not required for others such
as level in a large storage tank. See Section 24.3 in
Marlin (2000) for a discussion on the needs of sensor
accuracy.
  Repeatability – The closeness of The term “approaching in the same
agreement among a number of consecutive direction” means that the variable is
measurements of the same variable (value) under increasing (decreasing) to the value for all
the same operating conditions, approaching in replications of the experiment.
the same direction.
  Reproducibility – The closeness of The period of time is “long”, so that
agreement among a number of consecutive changes occurring over longer times of
measurements of the same variable (value) under plant operation are included.
the same operating conditions over a period of
time, approaching from both directions. This is Reproducibility includes hysteresis, dead
usually expressed as non-reproducibility as a band, drift and repeatability.
percentage of range (span).

Often, an important balance is between accuracy and

reproducibility, with the proper choice depending on
each process application.
  Range/Span- Most sensors have a limited If a chemical reactor typically operates at
range over which a process variable can be 300 C, the engineer might select a range
measured, defined by the lower and upper range of 250-350 C.
values. Usually, the larger the range, the poorer
the accuracy, and reproducibility. Therefore, Since the reactor will be started up from
engineers select the smallest range that satisfies ambient temperature occasionally, an
the process requirements. additional sensor should be provided with
a range of -50 to 400 °C.
We select ranges that are easily interpreted by
operating personnel, such as 100-200 °C, but not
100-183 C.
  Reliability – Reliability is the probability If sensor reliability is very important, the
that a device will adequately perform (as engineer can provide duplicate sensors, so
specified) for a period of time under specified that a single failure does not require a
operating conditions. Some sensors are required process shutdown. See Chapter 22 in
for safety or product quality, and therefore, they Marlin (2000) for the use of duplicate
should be very reliable. Reliability is affected sensors in process control.
by maintenance and consistency with process
environment. Also, some sensors are protected
from contact with corrosive process environment
by a cover or sheath (e.g., a thermowell for a
thermocouple), and some sensors require a
sample to be extracted from the process (e.g., a
chromatograph).
  Linearity - This is the closeness to a Linearity is usually reported as non-
straight line of the relationship between the true linearity, which is the maximum of the
process variable and the measurement. Lack of deviation between the calibration curve
linearity does not necessarily degrade sensor and a straight line positioned so that the
performance. If the nonlinearity can be modeled maximum deviation is minimized.
and an appropriate correction applied to the
measurement before it is used for monitoring See ISA (1979) for further details and
and control, the effect of the non-linearity can be several alternative definitions of linearity.
eliminated. Typical examples of compensating
calculations are the square root applied to the
orifice flow sensor and the polynomial
compensation for a thermocouple temperature
sensor. The engineer should not assume that a
compensation for non-linearity has been applied,
especially when taking values from a history
database, which does not contain details of the
measurement technology.

  Maintenance - Sensors require On-stream analyzers usually require the

occasional testing and replacement of selected greatest amount of maintenance. The cost
components that can wear. Engineers must associated with maintenance can be
know the maintenance requirements so that they substantial and should not be overlooked
can provide adequate spare parts and personnel in the economic analysis.
time. Naturally, the maintenance costs must be
included in the economic analysis of a design.
  Consistency with process A float can indicate the interface for a
environment - Most sensors will function liquid level. However, a float is not
properly for specific process conditions. For reliable for a “sticky” liquid.
example, many flow sensors function for a
single phase, but not for multi-phase fluid flow, Also, a turbine flow meter can be
damaged by a rapid change in flow rate or
whether vapor-liquid or slurry. The engineer
liquid entrained in a vapor stream.
must observe the limitations for each sensor.

Some sensors can have direct contact with the

process materials, while others must be protected.
Three general categories are given in the following.
Sensors in direct contact must not be
 Direct contact - Sensors such as orifice plates
degraded by the process material.
and level floats have direct contact with process
fluids.
 Sheath protection - Sensors such as The sheath usually slows the sensor
thermocouples and pressure diaphragms have a response.
sheath between the process fluid and the sensor
element. Samples must represent the fluid in the
 Sample extraction - When the process process.
environment is very hostile or the sensor is
delicate and performs a complex physiochemical
transformation on the process material, a sample
can be extracted.

Naturally, the parts of the sensor that contact the

process must be selected appropriately to resist
corrosion or other deleterious effects.
   Dynamics - The use of the sensor dictates A greater delay is associated with sensors
the allowable delay in the sensor response. that require a sample to be extracted from
When the measured value is used for control, the process.
sensor delays should be minimized, while
sensors used for monitoring longer-term trends On-stream analyzers usually have the
can have some delay. longest delays, which are caused by the
time for analysis.
  Safety - The sensor and transmitter often Standards for safety have been developed
require electrical power. Since the sensor is to prevent explosions. These standards
located at the process equipment, the prevent a significant power source,
environment could contain flammable gases, oxidizing agent and flammable gas from
which could explode when a spark occurs. being in contact.
  Cost - Engineers must always consider Remember that the total cost includes
cost when making design and operations costs of transmission (wiring around the
decisions. Sensors involve costs and when plant), installation, documentation, plant
selected properly, provide benefits. These must operations, and maintenance over the life
be quantified and a profitability analysis of the sensor.
performed.
See a reference on engineering economics
In some cases, a sensor can affect the operating costs to learn how to consider costs over time,
of the process. An example is a flow sensor. In some using principles of the time value of
situations, the pumping (or compression) costs can be money and profitability measures.
high, and the pressure drop occurring because of the
sensor can significantly increase the pumping costs.
In such situations, a flow sensor with a low (non-
recoverable) pressure drop is selected.

Links to WWW Resources

The engineer should understand the common sources of measurements errors and how these errors are
evaluated experimentally, characterized and considered when several elements are used in series. The
following WWW sites provide useful material for further study.

The US National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST)

has replaced the old National Bureau of Standards and provides
information on measurement.

The following sample chapters are available from the book by

Wheeler and Ganji (2004). Chapter 2 gives a nice survey of
measurement issues

Exercise 2.02 The drawing in Figure 2.02

 shows sensors that could be used for monitoring and controlling the
L2

How would you select the proper physical principle for each sensor? For example, what principle should be used by flow sensor F

or other?The resources on this site

provide information decisions.
for making these

Figure 2.

2.0.2 Location of measurement displays

The measurement is displayed for observation by plant personnel. Typically, the display uses analog
principles, which means that the display presents the measurement as a position in a graphical format,
which could, for example, be the height of a slide bar or the position of a pointer. Often, the value is
displayed as a line on a trend plot that provides the values for some time in the past. In addition, the
measurement can be displayed as a digital number to provide more accuracy for calibration. Finally,
measurements that are transmitted to a digital control system can be stored in a historical database for
later recall and for use in calculating important parameters useful in monitoring process behavior, for
example, reactor yields or heat transfer coefficients.

The engineer must ensure that the measurements are displayed where needed by personnel. Several
common approaches are briefly summarized in the following.

  Local display- A sensor can display the measurement at the point where the
sensor is located. This information can be used by the people when monitoring or
working on the equipment. A measurement that has only local display involves the
lowest cost, because the cost of transmission and interfacing to a digital system are not
required. Note that no history of these measurements is available unless people record
the values periodically.
  Local panel display- Some equipment is operated from a local panel, where
sensors associated with a unit are collected. This enables a person to startup, shutdown
and maintain the unit locally. This must be provided for units that require manual actions
at the process during normal operation (loading feed materials, cleaning filters, etc.) or
during startup and shutdown. Usually, the values displayed at a local panel are also
displayed at a centralized control room.
  Centralized control room- Many processes are operated from a centralized
control room that can be located a significant distance (e.g., hundreds of meters) from the
process. The measurement must be converted to a signal (usually electronic) for
transmission and be converted to a digital number when interfaced with the control
system. A centralized control system facilitates the analysis and control of the integrated
 plant.
  Remote monitoring- In a few cases, processes can be operated without a
human operator at the location. In these situations, the measurements are transmitted by
radio frequency signals to a centralized location where a person can monitor the behavior
of many plants. Typical examples are remote oil production sites and small, safe
chemical plants, such as air separation units.

Exercise 2.03 For each of the sensors used in the following list, determine the proper sensor location.

  Orifice sensor used for flow control of Centralized control room

the plant feed rate.
  Float sensor used for a high level Centralized control room
alarm in a reflux drum.
  Thermocouple sensor used to monitor Centralized control room
the temperatures in a fired heater to
prevent damage to the equipment.
  Pressure sensor used for the startup of Local control panel and centralized control room
a compressor.
  Pressure sensor used to monitor Local display (unless the plugging could occur
piping for possible plugging. rapidly, in which case the display should be in
the centralized control room)

2.0.3 The “Smart sensor” revolution

Currently, sensor technology is experiencing a dramatic change. While the basic physics
and chemistry of sensors are not changing, sensors are being enhanced by the addition of
microprocessors at the location of the sensor. This change makes the following features
possible that were not available with older technologies.

  Digital conversion and transmission- The “signal” from the sensor is no

longer simply a single value representing the measured value. The sensor can transmit
additional information, including diagnostics and corrected estimates of a variable based
on multiple sensors, e.g., orifice pressures and density. All values can be transmitted
digitally, which allows many sensor values to be sent by the same cabling, which reduces
the cost of an individual cable for each measurement, as required with analog
transmission.
  Diagnostics - The sensor can provide sophisticated diagnostics of its
performance and warn when a measurement might be unreliable.
  Signal conditioning - The sensor can identify unusual signal characteristics
and eliminate noise or “spikes” according to methods defined by the engineer.
  Configuration - The range of a sensor can be changed quickly to accommodate
changes in process operating conditions.
2.1 Temperature Measurement
Temperature control is important for separation and reaction processes, and temperature must be
maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable operation of process equipment. Temperature can be
measured by many methods; several of the more common are described in this subsection. You should
understand the strengths and limitations of each sensor, so that you can select the best sensor for each
application.
In nearly all cases, the temperature sensor is protected from the process materials to prevent interference
with proper sensing and to eliminate damage to the sensor. Thus, some physically strong, chemically
resistant barrier exists between the process and sensor; often, this barrier is termed a sheath or
thermowell, especially for thermocouple sensors. An additional advantage of such a barrier is the ability
to remove, replace, and calibrate the sensor without disrupting the process operation.
Thermocouples: When the junctions of two dissimilar metals are at different temperatures, an
electromotive force (emf) is developed. The cold junction, referred to as the reference, is maintained at a
known temperature, and the measuring junction is located where the temperature is to be determined.
The temperature difference can be determined from the measured emf. The relationship between
temperature difference and emf has been determined for several commonly used combinations of metals;
the mildly nonlinear relationships are available in tabular form along with polynomial equations relating
emf to temperature (Omega, 1995).

For more information on thermocouples select this button to

be directed to a site on the WWW.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD): The electrical resistance of many metals changes
with temperature; metals for which resistance increases with temperature are used in RTDs.
Temperature can therefore be determined from the change in the electrical resistance of the metal
wire according to
Effect of temperature on (1)
resistance

with RT the resistance, RT0 the resistance at base temperature of 0 °C, T the temperature of the
sensor (to be determined from RT) and a the temperature coefficient of the metal. This linear
relationship sometimes provides sufficient accuracy, but nonlinear correlations are available for
higher accuracy (Omega, 1995). RTDs are commonly used for applications in which higher
accuracy than provided by thermocouples is required.

For more information on RTD's select this button to be

directed to a site on the WWW.

Thermistor: This sensor is similar to an RTD, but applies metals for which the resistance
decreases with increasing temperature. The relationship is often very nonlinear, but thermistors
can provide very accurate temperature measurements for small spans and low temperatures.

For more information on thermistors select this button to be

directed to a site on the WWW.

Bimetallic: Metals expand with increasing temperature, and the rate of expansion differs among
metals. A spiral constructed of two bonded metal strips will coil (uncoil) as the temperature
changes. The changing position of the coil can be detected and used to determine the
temperature. This provides a rugged, low cost sensor that is often used for local displays and for
on-off temperature control, i.e., a thermostat.
Filled systems: A fluid expands with increasing temperature and exerts a varying pressure on
the containing vessel. When the vessel is similar to a bourbon tube, the varying pressure causes
a deformation that changes the position detected to determine the temperature.
For further information on temperature sensors, including
optical pyrometers, select this button to be directed to a
site on the WWW.

Table 1. Summary of temperature sensors

Sensor Type Limits of Accuracy1,2 Dynamics: Advantages Disadvantages
Application t (s)
(°C)
Thermocouple
±1.5 or -good
type E: -100 to 1000 0.5% for 0
chromel-constantan reproducibility -minimum span
to 900 °C of 40 °C
-wide range
type J: ±2.2 or see note 3 -temperature vs.
0 to 750
iron-constantan 0.75% emf not exactly
type K: ±2.2 or linear
0 to 1250
chromel-nickel 0.75% -drift over time
±1.0 or -low emf
type T: corrupted by
-160 to 400 1.5% for
copper-constantan noise
-160 to 0 °C

-self-heating
-good accuracy
-less physically
RTD -200 to 650 0.15 + 0.2|T| see note 3 -small span rugged
possible
-self-heating
-linearity
error
-highly
nonlinear
-good accuracy -only small span
Thermister -40 to 150 ± 0.10 °C see note 3
-little drift -less physically
rugged
-drift
-low cost
Bimetallic - ± 2% - -physically -local display
rugged
-not high
-simple and temperatures
Filled system -200 to 800 ± 1% 1 to 10 low cost -sensitive to
-no hazards external
pressure
Notes:
1. Accuracy is measured in °C or % of span, whichever is larger.
2. With RTDs, the inaccuracy increases approximately linearly with temperature deviation from 0
°C.
3. The dynamics depend strongly on the sheath or thermowell (material, diameter, and wall
thickness), the location of the element in the sheath (i.e. bonded or air space, the fluid type, and
the fluid velocity. Typical values are 2 to 5 seconds for high fluid velocities.

For some data on the dynamic responses of shielded

temperature sensors, select this button to be directed to a
site on the WWW.

2.2 Flow Measurement

Flow measurement is critical to determine the amount of material purchased and sold, and in
these applications, very accurate flow measurement is required. In addition, flows throughout
the process should the regulated near their desired values with small variability; in these
applications, good reproducibility is usually sufficient. Flowing systems require energy,
typically provided by pumps and compressors, to produce a pressure difference as the driving
force, and flow sensors should introduce a small flow resistance, increasing the process energy
consumption as little as possible. Most flow sensors require straight sections of piping before
and after the sensor; this requirement places restrictions on acceptable process designs, which
can be partially compensated by straightening vanes placed in the piping. The sensors discussed
in this subsection are for clean fluids flowing in a pipe; special considerations are required for
concentrated slurries, flow in an open conduit, and other process situations.
Several sensors rely on the pressure drop or head occurring as a fluid flows by a resistance; an
example is given in Figure 1. The relationship between flow rate and pressure difference is
determined by the Bernoulli equation, assuming that changes in elevation, work and heat transfer
are negligible.
 Figure 1. Orifice flow meter

(2)
Bernoulli's equation

where Sf represents the total friction loss that is usually assumed negligible. This equation can be
simplified and rearranged to give (Foust et. al, 1981; Janna, 1993)

general head meter (3)

equation

The meter coefficient, Cmeter, accounts for all non-idealities, including friction losses, and
depends on the type of meter, the ratio of cross sectional areas and the Reynolds number. The
compressibility factor, Y, accounts for the expansion of compressible gases; it is 1.0 for
incompressible fluids. These two factors can be estimated from correlations (ASME, 1959;
Janna, 1993) or can be determined through calibration. Equation (3) is used for designing head
flow meters for specific plant operating conditions.
When the process is operating, the meter parameters are fixed, and the pressure difference is
measured. Then, the flow can be calculated from the meter equation, using the appropriate
values for Cmeter and Y. All constants are combined, leading to the following relationship.

relationship for installed (4)

head meter

In the usual situation in which only reproducibility is required, the fluid density is not measured
and is assumed constant; the simplified calculation is where the density is assumed to be its
design value of ro. This is a good assumption for liquid and can provide acceptable accuracy for
gases in some situations. Again, all constants can be combined (including ro) into C1 to give the
following relationship.
relationship for installed
head meter with constant (5)
density
If the density of a gas varies significantly because of variation in temperature and pressure (but
not average molecular weight), correction is usually based on the ideal gas law using low cost
sensors to measure T and P according to
relationship for installed
head meter, gas with (6)
constant MW, changing
T and P

where the density (assumed constant at ro), temperature (To) and pressure (Po) were the base case
values used in determining Co. If the density varies significantly due to composition changes and
high accuracy is required, the real-time value of fluid density (r) can be measured by an on-
stream analyzer for use as ro in equation (4) (Clevett, 1985).
The flow is determined from equation (5) by taking the square root of the measured pressure
difference, which can be measured by many methods. A U-tube manometer provides an
excellent visual display for laboratory experiments but is not typically used industrially. For
industrial practice a diaphragm is used for measuring the pressure drop; a diaphragm with one
pressure on each side will deform according to the pressure difference.
Note that the pressure in the pipe increases after the vena contracta where the flow cross section
returns to its original value, but because of the meter resistance, the pressure downstream of the
meter (P3) is lower than upstream pressure (P1). This is the “non-recoverable” pressure drop of
the meter that requires energy, e.g., compressor work, to overcome and increases the cost of plant
operation. The non-recoverable pressure losses for three important head meters are given in
Figure 5.
The low pressure at the point of highest velocity creates the possibility for the liquid to partially
vaporize; it might remain partially vaporized after the sensor (called flashing) or it might return
to a liquid as the pressure increases after the lowest pressure point (called cavitation). We want
to avoid any vaporization to ensure proper sensor operation and to retain the relationship
between pressure difference and flow. Vaporization can be prevented by maintaining the inlet
pressure sufficiently high and the inlet temperature sufficiently low.
Some typical head meters are described briefly in the following.
Orifice: An orifice plate is a restriction with an opening smaller than the pipe diameter which is
inserted in the pipe; the typical orifice plate has a concentric, sharp edged opening, as shown in
Figure 1. Because of the smaller area the fluid velocity increases, causing a corresponding
decrease in pressure. The flow rate can be calculated from the measured pressure drop across the
orifice plate, P1-P3. The orifice plate is the most commonly used flow sensor, but it creates a
rather large non-recoverable pressure due to the turbulence around the plate, leading to high
energy consumption (Foust, 1981).
Venturi Tube: The venturi tube shown in Figure 2 is similar to an orifice meter, but it is
designed to nearly eliminate boundary layer separation, and thus form drag. The change in cross-
sectional area in the venturi tube causes a pressure change between the convergent section and
the throat, and the flow rate can be determined from this pressure drop. Although more expensive
that an orifice plate; the venturi tube introduces substantially lower non-recoverable pressure
drops (Foust, 1981).

Figure 2. Venturi flow meter

Flow Nozzle: A flow nozzle consists of a restriction with an elliptical contour approach section that
terminates in a cylindrical throat section. Pressure drop between the locations one pipe diameter upstream
and one-half pipe diameter downstream is measured. Flow nozzles provide an intermediate pressure drop
between orifice plates and venturi tubes; also, they are applicable to some slurry systems.
Elbow meter: A differential pressure exists when a flowing fluid changes direction due to a pipe turn or
elbow, as shown in Figure 3 below. The pressure difference results from the centrifugal force. Since pipe
elbows exist in plants, the cost for these meters is very low. However, the accuracy is very poor; there are
only applied when reproducibility is sufficient and other flow measurements would be very costly.

Figure 3. Elbow flow meter.

Pitot tube and annubar: The pitot tube, shown in Figure 4 below, measures the static and dynamic
pressures of the fluid at one point in the pipe. The flow rate can be determined from the difference
between the static and dynamic pressures which is the velocity head of the fluid flow. An annubar
consists of several pitot tubes placed across a pipe to provide an approximation to the velocity profile,
and the total flow can be determined based on the multiple measurements. Both the pitot tube and
annubar contribute very small pressure drops, but they are not physically strong and should be used only
with clean fluids.

Figure 4. Pitot flow meter.

Figure 5. Flow meter non-recoverable pressure losses (Andrews and Williams, Vol 1, 1979)

The following flow sensors are based on physical principles other than head.
Turbine: As fluid flows through the turbine, it causes the turbine to rotate with an angular
velocity that is proportional to the fluid flow rate. The frequency of rotation can be measured
and used to determine flow. This sensor should not be used for slurries or systems experiencing
large, rapid flow or pressure variation.
Vortex shedding : Fluid vortices are formed against the body introduced in the pipe. These
vortices are produced from the downstream face in a oscillatory manner. The shedding is sensed
using a thermistor and the frequency of shedding is proportional to volumetric flow rate.
Positive displacement: In these sensors, the fluid is separated into individual volumetric
elements and the number of elements per unit time are measured. These sensors provide high
accuracy over a large range. An example is a wet test meter.

For an excellent concise discussion on flow sensors

(including many not discussed here) with good figures
of meters, select this button to be directed to a site on
the WWW.

For an excellent in-depth discussion of flow sensors,

select this button to be directed to a site on the WWW
and select Volume 4.

Table 2. Summary of flow sensors

Dynamics
Sensor Rangeability1 Accuracy2 Advantages Disadvantages
(s)
-low cost -high pressure loss
2-4% of full
orifice 3.5:1 - -extensive -plugging with
span
industrial practice slurries
-lower pressure
loss than orifice -high cost
venturi 3.5:1 1% of full span -
-slurries do not -line under 15 cm
plug
-good for slurry
-higher cost than
service
flow nozzle 3.5:1 2% full span - orifice plate
-intermediate
-limited pipe sizes
pressure loss
5-10% of full
elbow meter 3:1 - -low pressure loss -very poor accuracy
span
-low pressure loss -poor performance
0.5-1.5% of
annubar 3:1 - -large pipe with dirty or sticky
full span
fluids
diameters
turbine 20:1 0.25% of - -wide rangeability -high cost
measurement
-good accuracy -strainer needed,
especially for
 slurries
-wide rangeability
-insensitive to
vortex 1% of variations in
10:1 - density, -expensive
shedding measurement
temperature,
pressure, and
viscosity
-high pressure drop
positive 0.5% of -high reangeability
10:1 or greater - -damaged by flow
displacement measurement -good accuracy
surge or solids
Notes:
1. Rangeability is the ratio of full span to smallest flow that can be measured with
sufficient accuracy.
2. Accuracy applies to a calibrated instrument.

2.3 Pressure Measurement

Most liquid and all gaseous materials in the process industries are contained within closed
vessels. For the safety of plant personnel and protection of the vessel, pressure in the vessel is
controlled. In addition, pressured is controlled because it influences key process operations like
vapor-liquid equilibrium, chemical reaction rate, and fluid flow.
The following pressure sensors are based on mechanical principles, i.e., deformation based on
force.
Bourdon : A bourbon tube is a curved, hollow tube with the process pressure applied to the
fluid in the tube. The pressure in the tube causes the tube to deform or uncoil. The pressure can
be determined from the mechanical displacement of the pointer connected to the Bourdon tube.
Typical shapes for the tube are “C” (normally for local display), spiral and helical.
Bellows : A bellows is a closed vessel with sides that can expand and contract, like an
accordion. The position of the bellows without pressure can be determined by the bellows itself
or a spring. The pressure is applied to the face of the bellows, and its deformation and its
position depend upon the pressure.
Diaphragm : A diaphragm is typically constructed of two flexible disks, and when a pressure is
applied to one face of the diaphragm, the position of the disk face changes due to deformation.
The position can be related to pressure.
The following pressure sensors are based on electrical principles; some convert a deformation to
a change in electrical property, others a force to an electrical property.
Capacitive or inductance : The movement associated with one of the mechanical sensors
already described can be used to influence an electrical property such as capacitance affecting a
measured signal. For example, under changing pressure a diaphragm causes a change in
capacitance or inductance.
 Resistive, strain gauge : The electrical resistance of a metal wire depends on the strain applied
to the wire. Deflection of the diaphragm due to the applied pressure causes strain in the wire, and
the electrical resistance can be measured and related to pressure.
Piezoelectric : A piezoelectric material, such as quartz, generates a voltage output when
pressure is applied on it. Force can be applied by the diaphragm to a quartz crystal disk that is
deflected by process pressure.

For an excellent in-depth discussion of pressure

sensors, select this button to be directed to a site on the
WWW and select Volume 3.

Table 3. Pressure sensors

Limits of
Sensor Accuracy Dynamics Advantages Disadvantages
Application
1-5% of full
bourdon, "C" up to 100 MPa -
span -low cost with
0.5% of full reasonable -hysteresis
spiral up to 100 MPa - accuracy
span -affected by shock
0.5-1% of full -wide limits of and vibration
helical up to 100 MPa - application
span

-smaller pressure
typically -low cost
0.5% of full range of application
bellows vacuum to 500 - -differential
span -temperature
kPa pressure
compensation needed

-usually limited to
0.5-1.5% of -very small span
diaphragm up to 60 kPa - low pressures (i.e.
full span possible
below 8 kPa)
capacitance/ 0.2% of full
up to 30 kPa - - -
inductance span
resistive/strain 0.1-1% of full -large range of
up to 100 MPa fast -
gauge span pressures
0.5% of full -sensitive to
piezoelectric - very fast -fast dynamics
span temperature changes
2.4 Level Measurement
Level of liquid in a vessel should be maintained above the exit pipe because if the vessel empties the exit
flow will become zero, a situation that would upset downstream processes and could damage pumping
equipment that requires liquid. Also, the level should not overflow an open vessel nor should it exit
through a vapor line of a closed vessel, which could disturb a process designed for vapor. In addition,
level can influence the performance of a process; the most common example is a liquid phase chemical
reactor. Level is usually reported as percent of span, rather than in length (e.g., m). Level sensors can be
located in the vessel holding the liquid or in an external “leg” which acts as a manometer. When in the
vessel, float and displacement sensors are usually placed in a “stilling chamber” which reduces the effects
of flows in the vessel.
Float : The float of material that is lighter than the fluid follows the movement of the liquid level. The
position of the float, perhaps attached to a rod, can be determined to measure the level.
Displacement: By Archimedes principle, a body immersed in a liquid is buoyed by a force equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced by the body. Thus, a body that is more dense than the liquid can be placed
in the vessel, and the amount of liquid displaced by the body, measured by the weight of the body when in
the liquid, can be used to determine the level.
Differential pressure: The difference in pressures between to points in a vessel depends on the fluids
between these two points. If the difference in densities between the fluids is significant, which is
certainly true for a vapor and liquid and can be true for two different liquids, the difference in pressure
can be used to determine the interface level between the fluids. Usually, a seal liquid is used in the two
connecting pipes (legs) to prevent plugging at the sensing points.
Capacitance : A capacitance probe can be immersed in the liquid of the tank, and the capacitance
between the probe and the vessel wall depends on the level. By measuring the capacitance of the liquid,
the level of the tank can be determined.

For an excellent in-depth discussion of level sensors,

select this button to be directed to a site on the WWW
and select Volume 4.

Table 4. Level sensors

Limits of
Sensor Accuracy Dynamics Advantages Disadvantages
Application
-cannot be used with
-can be used for
float up to 1 m - - sticky fluids which coat
switches
the float
-limited range
displacement 0.3-3 m - - -good accuracy -cost of external
mounting for high
pressures
differential essentially no - - -good accuracy -assumes constant
pressure upper limit density
-large range
 -applicable to
-sealed lines sensitive
slurries with use of
to temperature
sealed lines
-applicable for
slurries -affected by density
capacitance up to 30 m - -
-level switch for variations
many difficult fluids

2.5 Onstream Analyzers

The term analyzer refers to any sensor that measures a physical property of the process material.
This property could relate to purity (e.g., mole % of various components), a basic physical
property (e.g., density or viscosity), or an indication of product quality demanded by the
customers in the final use of the material (e.g., gasoline octane or fuel heating value).
Analyzers rely on a wide range of physical principles; their unifying characteristic is a greatly
increased sensor complexity when compared with the standard temperature, flow, pressure and
level (T, F, P, and L) sensors. In many situations, the analyzer is located in a centralized
laboratory and processes samples collected at the plant and transported to the laboratory. This
procedure reduces the cost of the analyzer, but it introduces long delays before a measurement is
available for use in plant operations.
Analyzers can be located near the process equipment to provide real-time measurements of
variables for use in plant operations and control. Clearly, the availability of key process
variables (beyond T, F ,P , and L) provide the possibility of improved dynamic performance
leading to increased safety, consistently high product quality and higher profits. In general, these
benefits are gained at the expense of higher sensor cost and lower reliability; thus, the engineer
should perform an economic analysis considering benefits and costs before deciding to install an
on-stream analyzer.
The alternative approach involves feedback control of inferential variables (see Marlin, Chapter
17, 1995), perhaps coupled with infrequent laboratory analysis. Both on-stream analyzers and
inferential variables are used widely in the process industries; the proper selection of sensor and
control technology depends on the costs and benefits for each specific application.
Onstream analyzers utilize many different physical principles, and a survey of these analyzers
requires a large body of material, typically at least one full-sized book (e.g., Clevett, 1985). In
this section, some of the key factors applicable to many analyzers are reviewed; these factors are
independent of the specific physics and chemistry of the analyzer principle. The main general
issue is the need for a sample system for many on-stream analyzers.
The purpose of a sample system is to extract a representative sample of the fluid, preprocess the
material so that the analyzer can perform its function, and dispose of the effluent after the
analysis has been completed. A typical sample system is shown in Figure 6. The sample design
contributes to achieving the goal of extracting material that represents the total stream
properties. Typically, the sample probe (pipe into which the sample flows) has its opening
located near the center of the process pipe. Its openings can be arranged to limit the extraction of
entrained solids and gases. The flow rate of the sample from the process to the analyzer should
be very high even though the analyzer may require only a small amount of material. This “fast
loop” of sample flow prevents a long transportation lag, i.e., dead time, in the analyzer sample
system. Naturally, this design requires a large amount of material to be sampled, and it should
be returned to the process for economic and environmental reasons.

Figure 6. Typical sample system for on-stream analyzer.

A smaller sample for analysis is taken from the fast loop. This sample needs to be preprocessed or
"conditioned" to ensure that it is acceptable for the analyzer. For example, the sample might be heated
to ensure continuous flow of a material that might solidify, or it might be cooled to satisfy limits of the
analyzer equipment. In addition, the pressure is regulated to ensure that a large pressure surge in the
process is not transmitted to a sensitive analyzer. A pressure regulator is often used; this is a self-
contained sensor, proportional controller and valve which provides low cost and reliable protection, but
not exact control. Finally, limited physical separation to protect the analyzer may be advantageous; often,
a filter is used to remove fine particulate matter, and a coalescer can separate undesired liquid
components, for example, occasional water in a hydrocarbon stream.
The flow of the stream to the analyzer should be regulated. This flow could be continuous or
periodic, depending on the requirements of the analyzer. For example, a chromatogragh requires
a periodic flow and provides periodic or discrete values of the measured variable. A continuous
stream might be regulated by a rotameter, and a periodic flow could be regulated by electrically
operated on/off (solenoid) valves.
All effluent material, whether or not it was processed by the analyzer, must be disposed of
properly. The best approach is to return all material to the process. This requires either a
collection vessel with a pumped return flow or a return to the process at a lower pressure than the
analyzer effluent. Environmentally benign material can be vented to the atmosphere or sewer.
Two additional sources of material are common. For startup, shutdown, and pressure testing, a
source of clean fluid is required to fill and flush the system. For checking the performance of the
on-stream analyzer, a source of fluid with known properties (a calibration sample) is provided,
and the plant personnel can divert the process sample and send a test sample to the analyzer.
This procedure contributes to confidence in the analyzer and much greater use of the measured
value in timely decisions.
Finally, the analyzer and sample equipment physically near the analyzer are often located inside
an enclosure, an “analyzer house”, which can be temperature controlled. This provides shelter
for the sensitive electronics and measurement equipment. Also, the shelter provides a barrier
between the atmosphere in the plant which might (even very infrequently) contain explosive
vapors and the electronic power need by the analyzer.
Clearly, an on-stream analyzer involves a complicated system of flow, pressure and temperature
control in addition to the analyzer itself. As a result, the installed cost of an on-stream analyzer
can be more than twice the cost of the analyzer alone for laboratory use. An additional cost
results from the frequent maintenance of the analyzer; a rough guideline is that one technician
working 40 hours per week can maintain about 10-15 on-stream analyzers. However, the
measurement and tight control of product quality provide substantial benefits, which justify the
total cost of many analyzers (for example, Bajek et al, 1987; Black et al, 1987; Marlin et al,
1987).

For information on sample systems for many process industries

(chemical, petroleum, food, etc.), select this button to be
directed to a site on the WWW.
Be sure to view the animations for a sample system in three
modes: bypass, sample, and purge.

3.0 Control Valves

The most common method for influencing the behavior of chemical processes is through the
flow rate of process streams. Usually, a variable resistance in the closed conduit or pipe is
manipulated to influence the flow rate and achieve the desired process behavior. A valve with a
variable opening for flow is the standard equipment used to introduce this variable resistance; the
valve is selected because it is simple, reliable, relatively low cost and available for a wide range
of process applications. In some cases the valve resistance is set by a person adjusting the
opening, like a home faucet. In many cases the valve resistance is determined by an automatic
controller, with the valve designed to accept and implement the signal sent from the controller.
These are control valves. A multitude of commercial control valves are available; so the goal of
this section is to describe the key features of common valves and provide guidance on proper
selection and sizing.
The principles of flow control through a restriction in a pipe are presented in textbooks on fluid
mechanics (e.g., Janna, 1993) and are briefly summarized here with reference to the example
system in Figure 7 taken from Marlin (2000). Naturally, the total pressure drop along the pipe
after the valve is the sum of the individual pressure drops, as given in the following equation.
Total pressure t
drop h
relationship e
for pressure
downstream of v
a
 lve
(7)

As we know the resistance to fluid flow increases as the flow rate increases. Also, the source of
the high pressure, here a pump, may be influenced by the flow rate; in this case, the pump head
decreases as the flow increases. The relationship between the pressures at the inlet and exit of
the valve are shown in Figure 7, and the required pressure drop across the valve is shown as
DPv. Therefore, any desired flow from 0 to 110% of the design valve can be achieved by
adjusting the valve opening to provide the required resistance to flow, DPv. For the example in
Figure 7, when the flow is 80% of design, the valve pressure drop is about 40 psi, which can be
achieved by adjusting the valve opening for flow to the proper value.

Figure 7. Example flow network with valve pressure drop.

Note that energy is required to raise the stream pressure to P1 is "lost energy". Therefore,
efficient design minimizes the valve pressure drop while providing sufficient variable resistance
for good flow regulation. Theoretically, a control valve would not be needed if the supply
pressure, in Figure 7 this is P1, could be varied. Variable speed electrical motors to drive pumps
are available for liquid systems, but the added cost and lower efficiencies of these pumps has
resulted in the control valve remaining the standard choice for regulating liquid flow (Bauman,
1981). Variable speed steam turbines to drive compressors are commonly applied for gas
systems; thus, two methods for adjusting flow in gas systems are common in the process
industries: these are:
 1. manipulating the supply pressure (by the speed of the compressor or pump) and
2. manipulating the variable flow resistance (by a control valve).
We will concentrate on control valves, which are the overwhelming choice for flow control in the
process industries.

3.1 Issues in Valve Selection

Valves are used extensively for affecting the process; we often say that values are the “handles” by which
we operate a process. We have many goals in influencing the process; therefore, we use the flow and
valve principles in many applications. There are many types of valves. The four most prominent types of
valves are summarized below.

Table 3.1.1. Most common applications of valves in the process industries.

Name Symbol Power Typical process application

Block Manual These valves are usually fully opened or closed,
(by person) although they can be used to regulate flow over
short periods with a person adjusting the valve
opening.

Safety Self-actuated These are located where a high (low) pressure in

Relief (the difference a closed process vessel or pipe could lead to an
between process and explosion (implosion).
external pressures
results in opening
when appropriate)
On-off M Electric motor These valves are normally used for isolating
process equipment by ensuring that flows are
not possible. They can be operated by a person
in a centralized control room, who can respond
quickly regardless of the distance to the valve.
Throttling Usually pneumatic These valves are typically used for process
control pressure control, where the desired flow rate is attained
by changing the opening of the valve.
Properly operating valves are essential for safe and profitable plant operation. Valve selection can be
guided by the analysis of a set of issues, which are presented in this section. Each issue is introduced here
with process examples, and details on the issues are provided in the remainder of this site for the most
common valves in the process industries.
 Exercise 3.1.1 You have just started your first job as an engineer. You supervisor presents you with the process drawing in Figure 3.1

Note that the regenerator is a fluidized bed

Guidance on selecting valves is pr

When defining valve requirements and principles, the engineer should use terminology that has a unique
meaning, which is not easily achieved. Therefore, the engineer should refer to accepted standards and use
the terminology provided in the standards. For instrumentation, standards published by the ISA
(formerly, Instrument Society of America) are the most relevant. This section uses terms from the ISA
wherever possible.

3.1.1 Major issues for selecting valves

The major issues in valve selection are summarized in the following. The relative importance of each
issue depends upon the specific application; for example, one application might require a low pressure
drop, while another might require a large range. Generally, we find that the greater the requirements for
good performance, the higher the cost for purchase and maintenance. Therefore, we must find the proper
balance of performance and cost, rather than always specify the best performing valve.
 ISSUE COMMENTS
 Capacity - The maximum flow rate through the The driving force for flow, i.e., the
flow system (pipes, valves, and process pressure, must be provided by a
equipment) must meet operating requirements. centrifugal pump or static pressure
Guidelines are available for calculating the pipe difference between vessels.
diameter for a desired flow rate, and guidelines
are given here for the percentage of the system
pressure drop contributed by the valve.
 Range - The range indicates the extent of flow This is often reported as a ratio of the
values that the valve can reliably regulate; very largest to the smallest flows that can be
small and large flows cannot be maintained at controlled acceptably and is usually in the
desired values. range of 35 to 50.
 Failure position - Each valve has a power We must analyze the entire process,
supply that is used to move the valve to its including integrated units to identify the
desired opening. The most common power safest conditions.
source is air pressure, but hydraulic pressure or
an electric motor can be used. The power can be In a few cases, the failure condition is
lost for one of two reasons (1) failure in the “unchanged”. If the air power is lost, air
power source (e.g., air compressor) or (2) a leakage will result in a slow drift to either
control action that requires the valve to rapidly open or closed.
attain a position that gives a safe process
condition. The engineer must define whether
the safest condition for each valve is fully open
or fully closed. This will be the failure position,
and the combination of the actuator and valve
body must achieve this position upon loss of
power.
 Gain - The gain is Usually, the measured variable is
expressed as a percentage of the normal
range (or sensor range). If a sensor had a
Δ measuredvariable range of 0-200 °C, a five degree change
Kp  Δ valve opening would be 2.5%.

A typical range for the gain is 0.5 to 3

In the equation, the measured variable refers to the (dimensionless).
variable being controlled by the valve adjustments.
The gain should not be too small (or the variable
cannot be influenced strongly enough to compensate
for distrubances) or too large (which would require
very small, precise changes to the valve).
 Pressure drop - The purpose of the valve is to Here, the key factor is the non-
create a variable pressure drop in the flow recoverable pressure drop.
system. However, a large pressure drop wastes
energy. In some systems, the energy costs for
pumping or compressing can be very high, and
the pressure drop introduced by the valve should
be as small a practically possible.
 Precision - Ideally, the valve would move to Two major causes of non-ideal valve
exactly the position indicated by the signal to the behavior are backlash and stiction.
valve, which is usually a controller output.
However, the valve is a real physical device that Backlash - A relative movement between
does not perform ideally. The following factors interacting parts, resulting from looseness,
prevent ideal performance. when motion is reversed.
 Deadband - Upon reversal of direction, the
greatest amount that the signal to the valve can Stiction - Resistance to the start of
be changed without a change to the valve motion, usually required to overcome
static friction.
opening (stem position).
 Resolution - The smallest amount that the The valve precision can be improved by
signal to the valve can be changed without a the addition of a valve positioner. See
change to the valve opening (stem position). Section 3.5.
This change is after a change that has overcome
deadband and is in the same direction.
 Linearity - The relationship between the signal See the discussion on valve characteristic
to the valve (or stem position) and the flow can in Section 3.3 and in Marlin (2000),
be linear or non-linear. Either may be desired, Chapter 16.
since a linear relationship is sought between the
signal to the valve and the measured variable
(which is not necessarily the flow, it could be a
pressure, temperature or other process
measurement).
 Dynamics - The valve is part of the feedback The actuator must provide sufficient force
system, and any delay due to the valve slows the and the speed of response that can be
feedback correction and degrades control improved by a booster. See Section 3.5.
performance. Therefore, the valve should
achieve the desired opening rapidly.
 Consistency with process environment - Flashing - The pressure drop across the
Each valve body will function for specified fluid valve can result is partial vaporization of
properties. Conditions requiring special a liquid; this situation is termed flashing
consideration include slurries, very viscous when the fluid after the valve remains at
fluids, flashing and cavitation. In addition, some least partially vaporized.
applications require a tight shutoff.
Cavitation - While the fluid at the
Naturally, the parts of the valve that contact the entrance and exit of a control valve may
process must be selected appropriately to resist be liquid, two phases may exist where the
corrosion or other deleterious effects. flow area is narrowest and the pressure is
at its minimum. This temporary
vaporization is termed cavitation and can
cause severe damage to the valve.
 Cost - Engineers must always consider cost Remember that the total cost includes
when making design and operations decisions. costs of transmission (wiring around the
Valves involve costs and when selected properly, plant), installation, documentation, plant
provide benefits. These must be quantified and a operations, and maintenance over the life
profitability analysis performed. of the valve.

In some cases, a valve can affect the operating costs See a reference on engineering economics
of the process, where the pumping (or compression) to learn how to consider costs over time,
costs can be high, and the pressure drop occurring using principles of the time value of
because of the valve can significantly increase the money and profitability measures.
pumping costs. In such situations, a valve with a low
(non-recoverable) pressure drop is selected.
Links to WWW resources
The following portal provides links to valuable information on
valves. Some special topics addressed in the links include the
following.
 Cavitation
 Noise
 Emissions
 Diagnosing valve performance




The following site discusses important issues regarding the

performance of control valves, addressing non-ideal behaviour like
stiction, deadband and hysteresis.

Valve manufacturers provide excellent information about valves

and guidance on how to select and size them. The following two
books are available from valve manufacturers for use online are for
downloading as pdf files. Fisher

Masoneilan

3.1.2 The “Smart valve” revolution

Currently, valve technology is experiencing a dramatic change. While the basic physics of valves is not
changing, valves are being enhanced by the addition of microprocessors at the location of the actuator and
valve body. This change makes the following features possible that were not available with older
technologies. The following assumes a digital valve positioner.

 Digital conversion and transmission - The “signal” from the controller

is no longer an analog signal (typically 4-20 mA). The signal can be
digital, with many controller outputs transmitted by a single digital
 transmission. This substantially reduces the cable costs. The signal is
converted to an analog pneumatic value for the valve actuator at the
control valve.

 Diagnostics- The valve can provide sophisticated diagnostics of its

performance. For example, excessive backlash or stictioncan be
identified and reported to the centralized control room. Then,
maintenance can be performed before the valve performance degrades to
the point of reducing process performance.

3.2 Control Valve Body

Many types of valve bodies are available to achieve specific flow regulation behavior. The
following description addresses the main valve bodies used in the process industries; key
features of each body type are presented after the descriptions in Table 5.

To see diagrams of the valve bodies discussed in this

section, select this button to be directed to a site on the
WWW.

Globe Valve: The name "globe" refers to the external shape of the valve, not the internal flow
area. A typical globe valve has a stem that is adjusted linearly (up and down) to change the
position of the plug. As the plug changes, the area for flow between the plug and seat (opening)
changes. Many different seat and plug designs are available to achieve desired relationships
between the stem position and flow rate; see the discussion on valve characteristic below. The
standard plug must oppose the pressure drop across the valve, which is acceptable for small
pressure drops. For large pressure drops, a balanced globe valve is used to enable a valve with
small force to open and close the plug.
Ball: The restriction for this body is a solid ball which has some part of the ball removed to
provide an adjustable area for flow. The ball is rotated to influence the amount of flow. The
example ball valve displayed through the link below has a tunnel through the ball, and the ball is
rotated to adjust the fraction of the tunnel opening available for flow. Other types of ball valves
have different sections removed from the ball to give desired properties.
Butterfly: The butterfly valve provides a damper that is rotated to adjust the resistance to flow.
This valve provides a small pressure drop for gas flows.
Diaphragm: The diaphragm valve has one surface which is deformed by the force from the
valve stem to vary the resistance to flow.
Gate: These valves have a flat barrier that is adjusted to influence the area for flow. These
bodies are used primary for hand-operated valves and valves automated for emergency shutoff.
Table 5. Summary of Features for Selected Control Valve Bodies
Valve Body Advantages Disadvantages
-large range -unbalanced forces
globe (unbalanced)
-good shutoff -high pressure loss
-high capacity
-poor shutoff
globe (balanced) -large range
-high pressure loss
-balanced forces
-high capacity -moderate pressure drop applications
ball
-tight shutoff -tends to plug (except segmented ball)
-high torque
-high capacity -large deadband
butterfly -low pressure loss -affects flow through limited range (i.e.
0-60%)
-slurry applications
-tight shutoff requires special seat
material
-short diaphragm life
-slurry applications
diaphragm -limited pressure and temperature
-corrosion resistant materials
-small range
gate -tight shutoff -used only with clean fluids

3.3 Valve Characteristic

The relationship between the valve stem position and the flow is defined as the valve
characteristic. This relationship with constant (design value) pressure drop is termed the
inherent characteristic, and the relationship in a specific process in which the pressure drop
may vary with flow is termed the installed characteristic. Two related units are used for the
characteristic; one is flow in gallons of water per minute per stem percent that is used for sizing
control valves. The other is percent maximum flow per stem percent which is used to plot
typical valve characteristics, for example, Marlin’s Figure 16.6 (2000).
The flow through a restriction can often be represented by
 relationship for
flow through a
restiction
(8)

with, in this expression, the characteristic expressed as a percentage of the maximum flow, and F max is the
maximum flow rate with a pressure drop of 1 psi.
A wide range of functional relationships for the C v can be implemented through the detailed design of the
shapes of the plug and seat. Some typical characteristics are shown in Figure 8. The valve characteristic
relationship is usually selected to provide a nearly linear relationship between the stem position, which
should be the controller output sent to the valve, and the controlled variable. If this goal is achieved,
constant controller tuning will be appropriate for the entire range of controller output (and flow rate). To
achieve this goal for a process with a constant process gain , a linear characteristic is appropriate, and
when the process gain changes with
flow rate, the valve characteristic should be the inverse of the process non-linearity.

Figure 8. Some typical inherent valve characteristics.

The straightforward procedure for determining a linearizing characteristic is explained in many
references, e.g., Marlin (2000) Section 16.5. While some references suggest guidelines for the application
of characteristics to specific process applications, the procedure in Marlin (2000) is easy to perform and
recommended.
Also, note that linearizing the control loop is not always the most important goal. For example, a
valve that must increase the flow from zero rapidly to protect equipment should have a quick
opening characteristic, even if this contributes to a nonlinear feedback loop.

3.4 Valve Sizing

Control valve sizing involves determining the correct valve to install from the many valves
commercially available. The procedure is based on information provided by valve
manufacturers, who specify the capacity of their valves using the valve coefficient, C v. The
valve coefficient is defined as the flow of water that will pass through the valve when fully open
with a pressure drop of 1 psi. In these tables, the units of C v are gallons of water per minute per
psi1/2. The engineer must calculate the desired Cv for the process fluid and conditions by
applying appropriate correction factors and select the valve using tables of C v versus valve stem
position and line size provided by the manufacturers
The required flow and pressure drop information used to size a valve is based on the process
operations and equipment, and ISA Form S20.50 (ISA, 1992) provides a helpful method for
recording the data. The size of the valve depends on the pressure drop across the valve. A
general guideline for pumped systems is that the valve pressure drop should be 25-33% of the
total pressure drop from supply to the end of the pipe (Moore, 1970). To provide appropriate
rangeability, the Cv (flow rate) should be determined for the extremes of expected operation.
Typically, a valve should be selected that has the maximum Cv value at about 90% of the stem
position; this guideline allows for some extra capacity. The valve should have the minimum Cv
at no less than 10-15% stem position, which will give a reasonable rangeability, especially since
the accuracy of the characteristic is poor below 10% stem position..
For liquids in turbulent flow, the defining equation is the equation for flow through an orifice,
which can be rearranged and supplemented with correction factors.

relationship for liquids in

turbulent flow through
(9)
an orifice

where

Cv = flow coefficient (gallons/min/psi1/2)

Fliq = flow rate (gallons/min)

dimensionless factor accounting for difference in piping due to fittings for piping changes at
FP = inlet and outlet; values range from 0.80 to 0.98 and are typically about 0.95 (see Driskell
1983 for details)
dimensionless factor accounting for viscosity effects for liquids; the value is 1.0 for
FR = Reynolds numbers greater than 4x104 (see Hutchison 1976 for the calculation of the valve
Reynolds number and FR)
Gli = specific gravity of process fluid at 60 °F (15 °C)
q
DP = pressure drop across the valve (psi)

When the process conditions, including the valve (Cv), are known, equation (9) can be used to calculate
the flow. When designing the process, the desired flow is known but the valve is not; equation (9) can be
rearranged to calculate the valve coefficient required for the specified conditions.

The pressure decreases as the liquid flows through the valve. The possibility exists for the liquid to
partially vaporize due the pressure drop, and this vaporization can have serious consequences for the
control valve. Two situations can occur: cavitation where the vapor forms and is condensed due to the
pressure recovery and flashing where vapor remains after the pressure recovery. The effect of
vaporization on the flow is shown in Figure 9. Importantly, cavitation involves the collapsing of bubbles
that can generate significant forces that will damage the valve components, so that cavitation should be
avoided when designing a flow system. This can be achieved by raising the pressure (e.g., higher supply
pressure), lowering the stream temperature (e.g., locating upstream of a heater) or using a valve with little
pressure recovery.
Flashing occurs when vapor remains downstream of the valve after the pressure recovery. This
situation will not result in damage to the valve and is an acceptable design. Special flow models
are required for valve sizing when vaporization occurs and can be found is standard references,
e.g., Driskell (1983).

For gases and vapors with subsonic flow, the development of the equation is similar but must
consider the change in density with an expansion factor and the lack of ideal behavior with the
compressibility.
relationship for gases and
vapors with subsonic flow
through an orifice
(10)

where

Fg = gas flow rate (std. ft3/h)

Gg = specific gravity of the process fluid relative to air at standard conditions

N = unit conversion factor (equal to 1380 for English units)

P1 = upstream pressure (psia)

T1 = upstream temperature (°R)

dimensionless expansion factor which depends on P1/P2 and the specific heat ratio; ranges
Y =
from 0.67 to 1.0 (see Driskell 1983)

z = compressibility factor
Figure 9. Typical effect of vaporization on flow rate.

Figure 10. The effect of sonic velocity on flow.

When the pressure drop across the valve is large, sonic flow can occur which will require special
calculations for valve sizing (Hutchison, 1976). The general behavior of flow versus pressure
drop is shown in Figure 10. When choked flow occurs, the downstream pressure does not
influence the flow rate. A rough guideline is that sonic flow does not occur when the pressure
drop is less than 42% of the supply pressure. Sonic flow through valves occurs often and does
not represent difficulties when the proper valve trim design and materials are used.
Special models are available for unique situations like sonic flow, mixed phase flow, slurries,
excessive vibration and noise, and condensation in the valve. See Hutchison (1976) and Driskell
(1983) for details.

A good summary of valve sizing with a worked

example is available by clicking on the figure on the
left.
The table used in the example is typical of the tables
provided by valve manufacturers.

3.5 Additional Control

Valve Equiqment
Additional equipment is required for good control valve performance, and a few of the more
important items are described in this section.
Actuator: The actuator provides the power that is used to move the valve stem and plug. The
power source used in the process industries for the vast majority of the actuators is air because it
is safe and reliable. Many actuators are described as diaphragm because the pneumatic signal
pressure is transmitted to the actuator volume that is sealed with a flexible diaphragm. As shown
in Figure 16, the valve stem is connected to the diaphragm, as is a spring that forces the valve to
be either fully opened or fully closed when the opposing air pressure in the diaphragm is
atmospheric. The diaphragm pressure is equal to the pneumatic control signal, usually 3-15 psig
representing 0-100% of the signal, which forces the diaphragm to distort and moves the valve
stem to the position specified by the control signal.

For a picture of a valve actuator, select this button to be directed to a site

on the WWW.
For further details on actuators, including discussion of failure positions
and explanatory sketches, select this button to be directed to a site on
the WWW.

Booster: The flow rate of air in the pneumatic line is not large and significant time may be
required to transfer sufficient air into the actuator so that the actuator pressure equals the line
pressure. This time slows the dynamic response of the closed-loop system and can degrade
control performance. When the delay is significant in comparison with the other elements in the
control loop, a booster can be located in the pneumatic line near the valve which increases the
volumetric flow rate of air and greatly speeds the dynamic response of the actuator.
Failure position: Major failures of control equipment, such as the break of a pneumatic line or
air compressor, lead to a low (atmospheric) pressure for the signal to the actuator. In such
situations, where control has been lost, the valve should be designed to attain the safest possible
position, which is usually fully opened or closed. The proper failure position must be determined
through a careful analysis of the specific process; usually, the pressure and temperature near
atmospheric are the safest. The failure position is achieved by selecting the design in which the
actuator valve places the valve stem in its safest position. The design is usually described as fail
open or fail closed. Other failure modes can be achieved in response to unusual circumstances,
for example, fail to a fixed position and fail slowly to the safe position.
Positioner: The valve is a mechanical device that must overcome friction and inertia to move
the stem and plug to the desired position. Typically, the valve does not achieve exactly the
position specified by the control signal. This imperfection may not be significant because
feedback controllers have an integral mode to reduce offset to zero at steady state. However, the
difference might degrade control performance, especially in a slow control loop. A positioner is
a simple, proportional-only controller that regulates the measured stem position close to the
value specified by the control signal to the valve. For further discussion on positioners, see
Hutchison (1976).

For additional discussion of valve positioners, including a few sketches,

select this button to be directed to a site on the WWW.

Hand wheel: Some control valves must occasionally be set to specified positions by personnel
located at the process equipment. A manual hand wheel provides the ability for local personnel
to override the control signal to the valve.
3.6 Steps in Selecting a Control Valve
The basic steps in control valve selection are presented below.
1. The first step in control valve selection involves collecting all relevant data and completing the
ISA Form S20.50. The piping size must be set prior to valve sizing, and determining the supply
pressure may require specifying a pump. The novice might have to iterate on the needed piping,
pump pressure and pressure drop through the piping network.

2. Next, the size of the valve is required; select the smallest valve C v that satisfies the maximum Cv
requirement at 90% opening. While performing these calculations, checks should be made
regarding flashing, cavitation, sonic flow and Reynolds number to ensure that the proper equation
and correction factors are used. As many difficulties occur due to oversized valves as to
undersized valves. Adding lots of “safety factors” will result in a valve that is nearly closed
during normal operation and has poor rangeability.

3. The trim characteristic is selected to provide good performance; goals are usually linear control
loop behavior along with acceptable rangeability.

4. The valve body can be selected based on the features in Table 5 and the typical availability in
Table 6. Note that the valve size is either equal to the pipe size or slightly less, for example, a 3-
inch pipe with a 2-inch globe valve body. When the valve size is smaller than the process piping,
an inlet reducer and outlet expander are required to make connections to the process piping.

5. The actuator is now selected to provide sufficient force to position the stem and plug.

6. Finally, auxiliaries can be added to enhance performance. A booster can be increase the volume
of the pneumatic signal for long pneumatic lines and large actuators. A positioner can be applied
for slow feedback loops with large valves or valves with high actuator force or friction. A hand
wheel is needed if manual operation of the valve is expected.
Table 6. Information on Standard Commercial Control Valves1

Body Type Size (in) Maximum Pressure Temperature (°F ) Capacity3

(psia)2 Cd =
Cv/d2
Globe 1/4 to 16 50,000 cryogenic to 1200 10
Ball 1/2 to 36 2500 up to 1400 30
Butterfly 3/4 to 200 2500 cryogenic to -2200 20
Diaphragm 1/4 to 20 100 -30 to 2200 22
1. Compiled from Andrew and Williams (1980) and Driskell (1983)
2. Higher pressures for smaller sizes and moderate temperatures.
3. The parameter d is the valve connection diameter in inches.
For a step-by-step method for selecting and sizing a control valve, select
this button to be directed to a site on the WWW.

3.7 Valve Installation

Many important factors must be considered when designing the physical installation of the control valve.
Perhaps the most important is the design of piping for manual bypass. A control valve may require
periodic maintenance to correct leaks, noise, vibration, increasing deadband, and so forth. Since a plant
shutdown usually involves a large economic penalty, an incentive exists to maintain plant operation while
the control valve is being repaired in many, but not all, situations. The bypass system shown in Figure 11
provides the ability to “block” out the control valve while the process flow passes through the manual
bypass valve. The performance is best when the design includes 10-20 diameters of straight run piping in
the inlet and 3-5 diameters in the outlet. An operator must close the block valves and manipulate the
bypass valve to achieve some desired operating condition, such as flow rate or temperature. For a typical
globe valve, the valve should be installed so that the stem moves vertically with the actuator above the
valve. In addition, the valve should be located with enough clearance from other equipment so that
maintenance can be performed on the valve.

Figure 11. Typical control valve installation

Control valves are used to affect the flow rate in a pipe, i.e., they are used to throttle flow. Control
valves do not provide reliable, tight closure, so that some small flow rate can be expected when the valve
is "fully closed". The amount of leakage depends upon the valve body and the fluid.
For a brief discussion of valve leakage, select this button to be
directed to a site on the WWW.

4.0 Control
Signal
Transmission
Most process control systems involve a structure of distributed equipment, with sensors and valves at the
process equipment and the control calculations and displays located in a remote, centralized facility.
Therefore, values of key variables must be communicated between the sensors, calculations and valves
(or other final elements). Schematics of typical control systems with analog and digital control are given
in Figure 4.0.1.

Central
Central control room
control room

Figure 4.0.1a Distributed control with analog Figure 4.0.1b. Distributed control with digital
control calculations. control calculations

Not all sensors and valves require signal transmission. Sensors with local displays and valves
requiring manual operation have no signal to transmit. However, many (most) sensors and valves require
signal transmission, so that personnel in a single location can manage the entire process. Reliable,
accurate and rapid signal transmission is essential for excellent process control.

A schematic of the equipment in a control loop, which presents the most typical signal
transmission, is given in Figure 4.02. The most common equipment in the loop is described in this
paragraph, while some other possibilities are shown in the figure. The process variable is measured using
a sensor applying technology presented in Section 1. Typically, the measured value is converted to a
“signal” that can be transmitted. The signal can be electronic or digital, as will be covered in subsequent
sections;this conversion is achieved at the location of the sensor. The signal is sent from the transmitter to
the control room, where it can be employed for many purposes, such as display to control as shown in
Figure 4.02. When the signal is used for control, the value of the controlled variable (signal from the
sensor) is used by the controller to determine the value of the controller output. The controller output is
transmitted to the final element, which is shown as a valve in Figure 4.02, but could be switching a motor
on/off or other automated action. For a control valve, the stem position is affected by air pressure to a
pneumatic actuator; therefore, the electrical signal from the controller must be converted to air pressure
signal. This conversion is achieved at the valve. The valve stem moves the valve plug, changes the
resistance to flow, and the flow rate changes.
 Located with process equipment Central control room

transmitter

Sensor Display

Flow Temperature pH Composition

.
.
. History
database

Reports
Convert signal
to air pressure Alarm

MV = Kc * [ ….. ]
Controller

Control valve

Figure 4.0.2. Schematic of the key elements required for monitoring and control.

preceding text noted that local sensors and valves do

ransmission. There are cases in which feedback control is provided locally, which eliminate the need for signal t

a. Describe why feedback control would be implemented locally. Give

advantages and disadvantages for this approach.

b. Describe examples of equipment used to implement local feedback

New Technology for Signal Transmission initiates Revolution in Process Control

Learning the basics of signal transmission is becoming a greater challenge than it was in previous
decades. The challenge results from the recent, rapid change in technology for control signal
transmission. From the inception of process control until the 1990’s, each signal involved the value a
single variable transmitted in only one direction by pneumatic, electronic, or hydraulic techniques; these
are termed analog signals. This lack of two-way communication limits the capability of the system. For
example, when the controller output value is sent to the valve (more correctly, to the i/p converter), no
information can be returned by the same wire, so that the control system has no confirmation that the
valve stem has moved.

Recently, new technology is being used for the signal transmission using digital communication,
which has much greater flexibility for transmitting multiple variable values, communicating to both
directions and performing calculations. Two-way communication and computation at any element in the
system (not just the controller) provides the opportunity for diagnostic information to be communicated
about the performance of the sensor and final element. Diagnostics can be used to schedule maintenance,
when the maloperationis not too serious, such as a slow drift from good accuracy. When the fault
prevents proper control, the system can immediately stop the operation of the control loop and alarm the
operations personnel.

Since control equipment has a long lifetime, practicing engineers will encounter many examples
of both analog and digital transmission technologies and therefore, must have a basic understanding of
both.

4.1 Transmission Issues

Signal transmission is an integral part of every feedback control loop. We must recall, “a chain is
only as strong as its weakest link”. Therefore, excellence process control performance requires the
signals to be transmitted between loop elements reliably, rapidly and accurately. To establish a basis for
learning methods for signal transmission, we briefly review transmission issues in this section. The
relative importance of each item depends on the specific application. For example, fast response is
required for controlling a mechanical system with rapid process dynamics, while high reliability is
required for a safety-critical application.

Many methods for communication are in common use in

society, e.g., radio and television transmissions. The
following material is restricted to applications of signal
transmission for automatic control in the process
industries.
 The major issues in signal transmission for control are summarized in Table 4.1.1.

Table 4.1.1. Control Transmission Issues

ISSUE COMMENTS
 Accuracy and reproducibility - Recall that the transmission occurs in the
The signal transmission should be feedback loop, so that inaccuracy will affect the
more accurate than the sensor and performance of feedback control.
final element, so that no degradation
results from the transmission. Here, Field calibration must be possible without
accuracy can be taken to mean a removing the equipment or compromising the
difference in the signal value from its safety protection.
exact value.
 Noise sensitivity - The signal can be
influenced by “noise”, including
electrical signals from other devices.
The system must be designed to
reduce the effects of noise.
 Reliability - The failure of a signal Because the equipment may be located
transmission results in the loss of outdoors, it must be physically rugged and be
feedback control. For safety-critical resistant to water and significant changes in
signals, a backup (parallel) temperature.
transmission path may be required.
In a typical loop, the elements are connected in
series. The reliability of a series of elements is
the product of the reliabilities of each element.

The power supplies are important potential

sources of failures that can affect many signals
simultaneously.
 Dynamics - Signal transmission is Transmission by electronic analog or digital
part of the feedback loop, and any signal is much faster than the dynamics of a
delays degrade control. The typical process element.
transmission should be much faster
than other elements in the loop.
 Distance - In large plants, signals can Physical connections have distance limitations.
be transmitted several thousand For very long distances, telemetry is used;
meters. however, reliability is sacrificed, so that this
method is normally restricted to monitoring,
with control implemented locally.
 Interoperability - We want to be Standards are easily achieved for analog
able to use elements manufactured by signals, 4-20 mA (electronic) and 3-15psig
different suppliers in the same (pneumatic).
control loop. For example, we want
to use a sensor from supplier A, a At the present time, several competing
controller from supplier B, and a standards exist for digital transmission.
valve from supplier C. To achieve
this “interoperability”, international
standards must exist for the signals
being transmitted between elements,
i.e., sensors, controllers, and valves.
  Safety - Naturally, the signal must The power supplied must be low or a dangerous
not compromise the safe operation of event must be contained within a controlled
the system. Since power is used for the environment (enclosure). In addition, a high
transmission, special considerations voltage or current caused by a circuit fault must
are required to prevent combustion or not be transmitted to a process area where a
explosion. fuel is present.
 Diagnostics and configuration - More limited (analog) systems could provide
Ideally, the signal should be able to many independent signals for every variable.
communicate several values, for However, this approach would be very costly
example, because a separate cable would be required for
 confirmation that the signal is being each signal and is not used in practice.
transmitted (live zero)
Digital transmission can communicate many
 confirmation that the signal was values related to each variable, e.g., process
received (echo) measurement.
 configuration values required for
sensors and final elements, e.g., sensor
zero and span values.
 Cost - Typically, several transmission Remember that the total cost includes costs of
methods will satisfy basic installation, documentation, plant operations,
requirements, so that benefits and and maintenance over the life of the sensor.
costs must be evaluated to determine
the best choice. See a reference on engineering economics to
learn how to consider costs over time, using
principles of the time value of money and
profitability measures.

Key question: What should be transmitted?

A major issue in signal transmission is the variable(s) transmitted. In analog systems, this choice
is limited to a single variable, so that the choice is obvious. The sensor sends its measured variable to the
controller and the controller sends its calculated output to the valve.

With digital transmission, many variables can be transmitted essentially simultaneously.

Therefore, we have the possibility for many variables. In addition, we can have two-way transmission,
with some transmission in the directions opposite to the arrows in Figure 4.02. As we will see, benefits
for digital transmission accrue to a large extent from the ability to transmit additional variables, not from
simply duplicating the functions available with analog transmission.

, repeated below.

etween the following elements in a control system via digital transmission. In answering this question, you can assume that any variable or

a. and control system. The control system and the valve.

The sensor
b.
 Located with process equipment Central control room

transmitter

Sensor Display

Flow Temperature pH Composition

.
.
. History database

Reports
Convert signal to air pressure
Alarm

MV = Kc * [ ….. ]
Controller

Control valve
4.2 Analog Signal Transmission

We have learned that feedback control consists of a loop with common elements, for example, a sensor,
control calculation, and final element. Generally, the three elements are distinct physical entities and can
be located at significant distances from each other. Therefore, transmission of signals, or information,
between the elements is essential.

Thermocouple temperature J-type sensor, mV

Analog signal transmission (4-20 mA) Signal used by controller, e.g., 1-5v
signal

7.734 mV 11.2 mA

Electronic analog controller

transmitter
E(t)  SP(t)  CV (t)
 1 t dCV (t) 
145 CPneumatic signal transmission C  (t)  K
MV
I T 0

E(t) E(t)dt DT I dy 

(3-15 psig)

63% open fci/p

11.56 psig14.08 mA

Valve stem position Signal used by controller, e.g., 1-5v

0-100%) Analog signal transmission (4-20 mA)

Heating medium

Figure 4.2.1. Typical analog signal transmission with analog control calculation.

Analog signal transmission was the only method for communication in process control from its inception
until the later part of the twentieth century. By “analog”, we mean that the value of a physical variable is
an “analogy” to the control system variable. For an example, consider the stirred tank process in Figure
4.2.1 in which the thermocouple measures the liquid temperature in the stirrer tank. When the
temperature changes, the millivolt signal from the thermocouple also changes; therefore, the millivoltis an
analog signal representing the liquid temperature. The relationship between the hot junction temperature
and the millivolt signal for each thermocouple design (here, a J-type) can be found in standard references
(Omega Themocouple, 2006). The millivolt is converted into a signal for transmission to a control system
for display, recording, and control.

The basic equipment in a loop is shown in Figures 4.2.1 and 4.2.2. The measured value from the
sensor is converted to the appropriate signal (physical variable and value) by a transmitter. The converted
signal is sent to the control system. The controller can be analog (continuous) or digital (discrete), and
naturally, the conversion of the signal for the controller must be appropriate for the type of controller.
The controller provides an output that must be converted to a signal for transmission to the final element.
The figures show an additional conversion that provides pneumatic pressure to the actuator of a control
valve. This design is appropriate for electronic analog signals being transmitted to a pneumatic valve,
which is typical in the process industries. However, we recognize that other situations occur, for example,
the final element could be speed of an electric motor, which would not require conversion to a continuous
pneumatic signal.
 Thermocouple temperature sensor, mVAnalog
signal signal transmission (4-20 mA) Analog to digital conversion

Digital number

7.734 mV 11.2 mA
A/D
Digital controller
transmitter
En  SPn  CVn
 1 i n (CVn  CVn1 ) 
 
MVn  KC En  T Ei ti  Td
tn
 I
I i 0 
145 CPneumatic signal transmission
(3-15 psig)

63% open fc i/p D/A Digital number

11.56 psig 14.08 mA

Valve stem position

0-100%)
Analog signal transmission (4-20 mA) Digital to analog conversion

Heating medium

Figure 4.2.2. Typical analog signal transmission with digital control calculation.

In the process industries, the following analog signals are in use.

 Physical position (connecting rod)

 Hydraulic pressure
 Pneumatic (air) pressure (3-15 psig)
 Electronic (4-20 mA DC)

In this section, we will restrict the discussion to electronic signals, except for the signal to pneumatic
control valves. The other three signals have limitations in distance, but find application in specialized,
simple control equipment. The standard electronic analog signal used internationally is 4-20 mA
(milliamp) to ensure interoperability.

The use of an analog signal to represent a sensor value involves the concept of a scaled variable
that establishes the relationship between a specific value of milliamps and the control system variable. To
understand, consider the example given in the following and shown in Figures 4.2.1 and 4.2.2.

Temperature = 145 °C
Temperature sensor/transmitter range = 100 to 200 °C
Therefore, the transmitter zero = 100 °C and the span is 200-100=100 C
Sensor signal range = 4 to 20 mA

We note that the sensor/transmitter provides a valid indication of temperature within its range. If the
temperature exceeds the range, the reported value remains at the appropriate limit, either low or high.
The use of a limited range improves the accuracy of the measurement and signal transmission. The
transmitter provides the value of milliamps (mA) for transmission, according to the following calculation
of the scaled variable, which represents a linear relationship between process variable and signal value.
(Signalsensor 
PV  Zero  Span * (4.2.1)
4)mA
(20  4)mA
  (Signalsensor  4)mA
PV 
100scaled  (4.2.2)

 (20  4)mA 

with

PV = the process variable (engineering units)

PVscaled = the process variable (scaled variables in % of span)
Zero = the low value of the range of the process variable (engineering units)
Span = (high - low) values of the process variable range (engineering units)
Signalsensor = transmitted signal in milliamps

Applying this concept to the temperature example using equation (4.2.1)

145C  100C  100C *(Signal  4)mA /(16mA) (4.2.3)

Signal  11.2mA

Also, the value of PVscaled is 45%.

Equations (4.2.1) and (4.2.2) are valid when the process variable has a value within the range of
the sensor. The signal is never less than 4 mA nor greater than 20 mA. Therefore, the engineer must take
care when specifying sensor ranges; ranges that are too small to achieve improved accuracy will fail to
provide a useful valve during disturbances. Also, care is needed interpreting a signal at either limit of the
sensor range.

In many controllers, including all analog (continuous controllers), the calculations are performed
in scaled variables, i.e., PVscaled. See Marlin (2000) Chapter 12 or other references for further discussion
of the use of scaled variables.

Note that the electronic analog signal contains no information about the process variable type
(whether it is temperature, pressure, etc.), variable identification (heat exchanger outlet, reactor bed, etc.)
or the transmitter range. Therefore, thorough documentation, calibration and verification are required
when installing control equipment so that a signal can be correctly interpreted where it is received.

The transmitter generally is faster and more accurate than other elements in the loop, and the
signal transmission is essentially instantaneous and without error. Generally, the sensor and transmitter
are purchased as a single unit from the instrument supplier. Therefore, dynamics and accuracy
specifications are typically provided for the integrated sensor and transmitter. Typical values are given in
Section 2 on sensors.

The control calculation can be analog or digital. If digital, the signal is converted from a current
to a digital representation by an analog to digital (A/D) converter. Sampling rates can be over 100,000
samples per second, which is much higher than required for most process applications. However, control
of high-speed machinery requires very high sampling rates. The A/D accuracy depends on the equipment
design and the number of bits in the digital (binary) representation of the number. The accuracy is
determined by the last bit, because signal change smaller in magnitude than the smallest bit does not
change the value of the binary number. The accuracy is approximately 1 in 2n-1, where n is the number of
bits in the binary number and is usually between 10 and 13. Typically, commercial process control A/D
equipment has an accuracy between 1:1024 to 1:8192 (expressed as inaccuracy in fraction of sensor span)
and a conversion time much faster than process elements in the loop (0.1 ms) (Liptak, 1999). Because of
the speed and accuracy, the A/D conversion has little effect on a typical feedback loop controlling
pressure, level, temperature, etc.

The result of a control calculation is sent to the final element. If the control calculations are
performed via digital computation, the result must be converted using a digital to analog (D/A) converter.
Typically, commercial process control D/A equipment has an accuracy of about 1:1024 (expressed as
inaccuracy in fraction of output span, 0-100%) and a conversion time much faster than other elements in
the loop (Liptak, 1999). Again, the D/A conversion has little effect on a typical feedback loop controlling
pressure, level, temperature, etc.

Typically, the controller output in percent is transmitted to a throttling control valve, i.e., a valve
whose opening is adjusted as a continuous variable to determine the flow. Often, the value transmitted is
the result of the famous PID calculation. The signal transmitted is the same percentage of the range of the
electronic signal. Recalling that the electronic signal is 4-20 mA, the conversion from controller output to
current is given in the following linear relationship.

(20  (4.2.4)
Signa valv  signal  MV
4)mA
l e Zero (100 
0)%
with

MV = controller output in % (0-100)

Zero signal = 4 milliamp (live zero)
Signalvalve = signal from controller to valve (i/p converter) in mA (4-20)

For example, if the controller output (MV) were 63%, the signal transmitted would be 14.08 milliamp.

The electronic signal is converted to pneumatic because most control valves employ air pressure
to provide the force needed to move the stem position. Using air eliminates the need for electric motors,
which could be sources of hazardous power and equipment faults. Naturally, a reliable source of dry
compressed air must be provided and distributed throughout the process to every valve actuator. Again,
an international standard signal has been agreed; for pneumatic signals, the standard is 3-15 psig. When
applying this standard to the example above, the input to the i/p converter would be 14.08 mAand the
output would be 11.56 psig. Ideally, the valve stem position for the signal of 11.56 psig would be 63%;
the actual position would not be exactly 63% because of calibration inaccuracies and friction.

Exercise 4.2.1Calculate all signals with units for the system in Figure 4.2.3. You do not have to
determine the binary values for the digital numbers, and my assume that all equipment functions
perfectly (which does not happen in real life!).

Thermocouple type: K
Temperature transmitter range: 150-400
°C Set point (SP): 245 C
Kc  0.62 %/ C , TI  12 min , Td  0 min
Controller tuning:
 Thermocouple temperature Ainnal1og signal transmission Analog to digital
sensor, mVCsVignna1l7C
 23 ,
(4  -20Emi At)  75.5(min 30c%on,verstion 0.50s
C), I 
i0
Past controller values: Digital number

A/D
Digital controller
transmitter
En  SPn  CVn
  Td (CV  CV ) 
 E t
in
MV n  K C  E n  1 I
238 C Pneumatic signal
TI
i i
nt n1
 i0 n 
transmission
(3-15 psig)

fo i/p D/A Digital number

Valve stem
position
0-100%)
Analog signal transmission Digital to analog
(4-20 mA) conversion
Cooling medium
Figure 4.2.3. Loop schematic for Exercise 4.2.1.

Exercise 4.2.2 The electronic signal from the sensor/transmitter to the controller has a value of
1.3 mA. What can you conclude from this value? What is the proper action to be taken by the
controller? Can this action be automated?

Exercise 4.2.3 Typical values are given for measured variables in Figure 4.2.4.

ose initial values for

a. sensor ranges for the measured variables.
fy additional information
b. that you would need before you were confident that the values you estimated in part (a) were appropriate for th
To flare PAH 5000 kPa
PC-1

PV-3

P3 TAL
T5

5000 kPa 105 C

LC-1
15

14
F7
63 m3/ h
dP-1
13
T6

AC-1
T10

3
TC-7

dP-2 2 F4

140 C
1

LAH
LAL
LC-3

F9
33 m3/ h
1.2 mole% AC-2 F8

Figure 4.2.4. Distillation sensors with design values of selected variables.

Exercise 4.2.4For each of the following sensors, describe the variable measured by the sensor. In addition, define the ca

a. Orifice flow sensor Thermocouple

b. Level by pressure difference Pressure
c.
d.
4.3 Digital Transmission
Electronic analog transmission has been employed successfully for many decades, so that little benefit
would be gained from replacing the same functions via digital communication. Therefore, digital
communication has been developed to provide additional capabilities at reasonable cost. In this section,
we will restrict the discussion to digital communication linking elements in the real-time control loop.
The enhanced transmission must be complemented with increased capabilities in the loop elements, i.e.,
the sensor and final element. These will be “smart”, that is, they will have memory, programming, and
computing capabilities. This design for digital transmission provides distributed computation, which is
the true advantage for replacing analog with digital transmission.

The term fieldbusrefers to the use of digital transmission and distributed

computing for real-time process control. Several system designs exist for
fieldbus, and only some features common to most designs are introduced
here.

A typical fieldbusstructure is shown in Figure 4.3.1. One important difference from analog
transmission is immediately apparent. In analog transmission, individual cables link each sensor and final
element to the controller. The multitude of cables is very expensive but has the advantage of limited
effect from a single cable fault. On the other hand, the fieldbusstructure has one (or a few) cable for the
data transmission for all sensors and final elements. This design is much less costly to purchase and
install but has the disadvantage of greater effects from a cable fault.

Figure 4.3.1. A typical fieldbus control system structure highlighted with dark blue lines.

The major advantages of fieldbusrequire that sensors and final elements have digital computing
capabilities. With computing at key elements in the control loop, much more information is available and
can be provided for improved control. To take advantage of much of this information, we must broaden
our view of the control loop, which traditionally involves one-way communication from sensor to
controller to value. Now, we seek advantages from two-way communication and calculations at all loop
elements. A few examples are given in Table 4.3.1.

Table 4.3.1 Typical communication for analog and digital transmission.

Loop elements Traditional, analog Enhanced, digital fieldbus
involved
Sensor to controller Signal representing the To controller
measured value sent to the  Measured value
 controller Special purpose
DOipaegrnaotosrtsi’c from sHenisstoorry,
consoles diagnosis, optimization, etc. data storage
controllers:
safety, PLTC,o sensor
etc. Configuration of saenndscoarlscu(lea.tgio.n, szero and span valu
Digital controllers
(PID, etc.) es)
Calculations at sensor

•••Filtering measurement
Linearization
Correction for process environment (e.g., orifice for fluid temperature and pressure) which can require the use of several sensor

Controller
Output oftocontroller
valve calculation sent to the valve (i/p
To valve
converter)
(to the i/p converter)
Output of controller
Con•fi•g•uration of valve (max/min openings, characteristic, etc.)

••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •••

Sensor/transmitter To controller

position of stem position of valve
• diagnosticProcess
from valve
Process
Calculations at valve

Modification of relationship between control signal and stem position to modify characteristic

In the traditional analog system, the sensor and valve are passive elements and all decision-
making ability resides in the controller. In the digital system, key loop elements send and receive
information and perform calculations in real time.

Thus, the fieldbus includes a change from a “controller-centric” distributed digital control system
(DCS) design to Field Control System (FCS), in which all key components are actively involved
in computation and data storage.

Some of the more important features of elements in a fieldbus system are introduced in the following.

1. Configuration - A large effort is required to configure (specify parameters like sensor range and
valve characteristic) and verify data for elements of the loop. With Fieldbus, configuration can be
prepared prior to plant construction and can be loaded and checked quickly. The savings in time
and personnel costs can be substantial.
2. Calculations- Many calculations can be performed by the local processors to improve the
performance of the elements.
 Sensor nonlinearities can be corrected, e.g., thermocouple conversions from millivolt to
temperature.
 Several sensors can be combined to determine a more accurate value of a variable, e.g.,
density correction for a flow sensor.
 A desired inherent valve characteristic can be programmed into a valve.
3. Multidrop - The fieldbuscan connect many elements using the same cable, rather than using
individual cables for each signal as required by analog transmission. Again, saving can be
substantial.
4. Two-way communication - Any element can send and receive information, and any element can
communicate with any other element on the fieldbus.

The distributed computing available in fieldbusmakes possible the distribution of the controller
calculations. For example, the element performing the controller (e.g., PID) calculation could be
physically located at the sensor or valve. However, most plants desire control information to be available
at a centralized location, the control room; therefore, the controllers are usually located in this control
room.

In fieldbusdesigns, all elements (sensor, controller and final element) exchange information via
digital transmission. We desire to purchase the best elements available from different suppliers.

Therefore, international standards are essential to ensure equipment from different suppliers will
function in a network; this is termed interoperability.

Industry began to develop these standards in 1985, initial fieldbussystems were placed in operation in the
1990’s, and standards and systems continue to evolve.
4.4 Comparison of Transmission Technologies
Electronic analog transmission has been the standard for several decades. As a motivation for changing,
we require potential improvements for the digital transmission and smart instrument technology, and
potential advantages for digital systems exist in performance and cost. A summary of some key
advantages for each technology is given in Table 4.4.1.

Table 4.4.1. Major advantages of analog and digital signal transmission.

Technology Advantages
Standard analog transmission  Lower level of technology requires less skill to
install and maintain
 Lower impact on plant operation of a single cable
failure
 Lower installed cost for very small systems
Fieldbus transmission with  Reduced cost for installation reduces cost and can
“smart” sensors and valves shorten total project time
 Sensor and valve diagnostics result in
- reduced routine maintenance
- faster trouble shooting
- solution of incipient failures before they adversely
affect the process
 Higher accuracy for some sensors that use multiple
measurements and non-linear calculations

Some recent provides experience on the savings for fieldbusover standard analog equipment.
Cost reductions for fieldbus equipment were reported to be (Baltus, 2004),

 Wiring - 50%
 Commissioning (checkout and calibration) - 90%
 Space in the control house for instrumentation - 85%
 Maintenace - 50%

Cost advantages have been reported for projects involving many instruments. For example, the
instrumentation cost for an acetic acid plant was reduced 31% by using fieldbustechnology rather than
conventional analog technology (ARC, 2005). It is important to recognize that while the equipment cost
was higher for fieldbus, substantial savings were realized in cabling, wiring, calibration and
programming.

5.0 Instrumentation Safety

(Preventing Fire and
Explosion)
Naturally, we must safely accomplish measurement, control calculations, and process modulation through
adjusting the final element. Control systems contribute to safe process operation through basic control
design, valve failure positions, alarms, safety interlock systems, and pressure relief systems (e.g., Marlin,
2000; AIChE, 1993; Lees, 1996). This section addresses one important hazardous condition, fire and
explosion, that is affected by the design and implementation of control and transmission equipment. The
material in this section is applicable to a wide range of processes and industries using either analog or
digital transmission.

The information presented here provides an introduction to safety through

the use of proper control equipment. This section gives a simplified
discussion that is not adequate for engineering practice. The reader is
cautioned to
 Refer to up-to-date safety specifications for control equipment,
 Ensure that the appropriate regulations are used for the location
where the equipment will be installed, and
 Engage an experienced, registered engineer to review all designs.

All control equipment outside of a protected control room is in an environment with air and possibly,
combustible materials; hydrocarbons, dust, or other materials. Note that these combustibles might not
normally be present, but they are present in the process (e.g., within vessels and pipes) and could be in
proximity to control equipment during unusual situations. The electrical power provided for the
instrument introduces the third of the three components required for combustion or explosion, as shown
in Figure 5.1. Naturally, combustion and explosion must be prevented, and two commonly employed
approaches to prevent hazards are summarized in this section.

fuel

oxygen ignition

Figure 5.1. Triangle showing the three key elements leading to fire and explosions.
 Safety can be achieved by removing at least one of the elements in the environment around
instrumentation. An additional safety measure could contain the effects of any fire or explosion in a small
region, which would prevent it from propagating and creating a major hazard. An approach for achieving
safety by influencing each approach is introduced in the following.
 Fuel - A controlled environment can be continuously purged with air or an inert to remove fuel.
 Oxygen - The environment around an instrument can be immersed in a liquid or granular solid
that will prevent oxygen (and fuel) from being affected by the source of ignition.
 Ignition- The power source can be maintained below the critical value that could initiate fire or
explosion.
 Containment- An instrument can be surrounded with an enclosure that can contain a fire or
explosion within the small region, where it will extinguish quickly because of lack of fuel and
oxygen. This approach is termed "explosionproofing" in the United States and Canada and
"flameproofing" in Europe; note that the term “proof” here does not mean “no explosion or
flame”, it means the combustion is contained and will not propagate to other areas in the process.

Generally, a process has a centralized control building that has an environment free from
combustibles. The computers performing control calculations, safety controllers, historical data storage
and other higher-level computing are located in this building, as are operations personnel. Sensors and
final elements are located at the process, which can have oxygen and fuel present. We note that the fuel
should not be present in high concentrations, except within process vessels and pipes. Instrumentation
must be designed and operated to be safe, and instrumentation located in areas where a fuel source is not
normally present must be safe even during the occurrence of very infrequent fuel releases due to small
leaks or spills.

Hazardous Area Classification and additional specifications

The proper instrumentation design and installation depends on the likelihood of fuel being present and the
type of fuel that could be present. The engineer must select the area classification from several categories
and ensure that the instrumentation is compatible with safe operation. The appropriate local regulatory
agency defines the categories, and the instrumentation manufacturer defines the set of specifications
appropriate for each equipment. In most countries, the instrumentation equipment must be tested by an
independent agency, such as Factory Mutual or Underwriters Laboratory, to verify the specifications
given by its manufacturer.

Hazardous Area

The hazardous area classifications differ from country to country; for example, the classifications
are different between North America and Europe, although efforts are being made to make them
consistent. The classifications presented here are for North America, although since the classifications are
in a state of change, the practicing engineer should check with the relevant agency for up-to-date
information. Then, references are given for comparisons between the North American and European
standards. Area classifications for combustible vapors and dusts are given in Table 5.1 (Ode, 2000).

Table 5.1 Hazardous Zone categories

Area Designation Area Description
Zone 0 Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors are present
continuously or present for long periods of time. Examples include,
 Interior of tanks
 Locations near vents
 Zone 1 There may be ignitable concentrations during normal
operating conditions or concentrations exist frequently from
repair or maintenance of the equipment. Examples include,
 An area where the breakdown of equipment could
lead to a release
 Remember that pumps and compressors can
have small leaks

Zone 2 There may be ignitable concentrations during temporary

situations. Examples include,
 Storage where hazardous materials are in containers.
 Areas adjacent to Zone 1 with no hazards of its own
 Ventilation could prevent the hazard, but it could fail during a leak

Combustible material specification

In addition to a general quantity and likelihood of hazardous materials, the specific material is
important. To simplify classification, several groups shown in Table 5.2 have been defined (Ode, 2000).

Table 5.2 Groups of combustible materials

Material Group Description
Group A Contains acetylene
Group B Contains hydrogen
Group C Contains ethylene
Group E Contains metal dust
Group F Contains coal dust
Group G Contains grain dust

A key difference between the groups is the amount of energy required to cause ignition. For the gases,
the most restrictive is Group A (lowest energy for ignition) and least restrictive is Group C.

Temperature Specification

Additional specifications are given for other performance variables, such as the operating temperature;
categories for the maximum temperature are given in Table 5.3 Ode, 2000).

Table 5.3 Maximum temperature categories

Category Maximum temperature C
(with 40 °C as ambient)
T1 450
T2 300
T3 200
T4 135
T5 100
T6 85
Note that some categories have sub-categories.

The specifications just described apply to above ground manufacturing and address fire and
explosions, and they do not apply to special conditions, such as the following.
 Highly oxygenated atmospheres (oxygen greater than 20 mole %)
 Pyrophoric materials
 Underground, mines
 Any other hazards, e.g., hygiene or toxicology in food and pharmaceuticals

The remainder of this section presents two of the most important approaches for achieving safe
instrumentation in the process industries, intrinsic safety and explosion proofing.

Intrinsic safety

Intrinsic safety influences the potential source of ignition without affecting the other two key elements in
the safety triangle in Figure 5.1.

Intrinsic Safety: “A technique that achieves safety by limiting the ignition energy and surface
temperature that can arise in normal operation, or under certain foreseeable fault conditions, to
levels that are insufficient to ignite an explosive atmosphere” (Bentley Nevada, 2006).

If safety is to be ensured by preventing sources of ignition, excessive power must be prevented for normal
and foreseeable fault conditions. For example, low electrical power could be used during normal
operation, but reliable safety must also ensure that an electrical fault, which would provide higher voltage
or current, must not propagate to the areas in contact with the combustibles.

The concept is shown in Figure 5.2. Note that the intrinsic safety barriers, wiring and the field
instrumentation in the process area must be designed and installed as an integrated system.
Process area which can have Control room with safe, controlled
combustibles present environment

•••
Sensor/transmitter

Intrinsic Computers for

safety control calculations
barriers
•••
Final elements

Figure 5.2. Concept of intrinsic safety in a process plant. Intrinsic safety includes the barriers, field instruments
and wiring that must combine to prevent a source of ignition.

The fuel sources can vary widely in the process industries or even within different sections of a
large plant. Therefore, several hazardous area classifications are defined that depend on the types of
materials. The definitions and equipment performances are provided by national and international
professional organizations and each country defines the requirements that must be satisfied within their
jurisdiction. To satisfy these requirements, the equipment must be tested and certified by a body accepted
by the relevant governmental agency. While the concepts and general goals for intrinsic safety are the
same throughout the world, the numerous agencies can define different specifications, so that the engineer
must be aware of and abide by the local regulations. In addition, insurance providers may define
additional or more restrictive designs.
Explosion proofing

This approach reduces the possibility of a combustible mixture near the source of power combined with
limits to the damage that could be caused by an explosion. Again, national and international regulations
and standards are available.

Table 5.4 provides a quick comparison of intrinsic safety and explosion proofing, which is
paraphrased from Honeywell (2006).

Table 5.4 Comparison of intrinsic safety and explosion proofing.

Advantages Disadvantages
Intrinsic Safety  Allows all three  Enclosures can be bulky
components of ignition and costly
triangle to coexist  Any failure can
 No limit to power compromise the entire
consumption system
 Requires periodic
inspection

Explosion Proofing  Safest  Applicable when less

 Inexpensive than 1 Watt required
 Periodic inspection not  Does not protect against
required ignition from other
 Also prevents electrical sources, e.g., lightening
hazards (shock) to  Requires all elements of
workers circuit to be intrinsically
safe

6.0 Control Equipment Cost

Economics are always an issue in engineering practice. In a typical project, we incur expenses and
acquire revenues over time, and we face the challenge of determining the best project decisions, where
best means achieving the highest net profit. Fortunately, methods for economic analysis are readily
available. These methods consider the time-value of money and provide appropriate measures of
profitability, such as net present value (NPV). The methods for economic analysis are presented in many
excellent textbooks, for example, Blank and Tarquin (2002).

Engineers are responsible for estimating the benefits and costs of a project. The benefits accrue
from improved operation that improves product quality, increases reactor selectivity and separator
recovery, increases production rates, reduces fuel consumption, and reduces undesirable effluents. The
approaches and calculations for determining the benefits depend upon the specific project. General
approaches and example data and calculations are available in, among others, Marlin et. al. (1987) and
Shunta (1995).
 This section presents some useful information for estimating the cost of control equipment. We
must recognize the cost includes the following components.

 Purchase
 Transportation from supplier to user
 Installation and documentation
 Calibration
 Maintenance over the equipment lifetime

Some typical purchase costs are given in this section. Transportation cost clearly depends on the
particular item and supplier. Installation includes the wiring, power, and programming any associated
computing equipment. Calibration includes checking that the proper signal is connected to the desired
computing element and ensuring that standard signals evoke the desired result, e.g., a temperature at the
sensor provides the correct reading for display, alarm and control. Maintenance includes the cost of
personnel and spare parts.

Typical purchase costs are given in Tables 6.1 to 6.3 at the end of this section. Most of this data
has been provided by Liptak (2003; Liptak, 1999), who provides much valuable detail about each item.
Proper cost estimation requires that the equipment matches the process requirements, which requires
careful evaluation of equipment performance. Therefore, reference to Liptak(2003) and to suppliers’ data
is strongly recommended when performing cost estimations. However, the following typical data can be
helpful for educational purposes and for quickly screening many potential projects.

In addition, we must recall that prices are a commercial decision negotiated between purchasers
and suppliers. We expect that an order of many components will have a lower unit price than an order of
one or a few components. The data below is typical for unit purchases.

Finally, engineers use “quick and dirty” approximate estimates when initially evaluating many
projects. These methods are not very accurate, typically having uncertainty of 30% or more. An
example that is often needed is the cost of all instrumentation, including installation, for a plant
construction project. Estimates are available (e.g., Perry’s Handbook, 1997); however, the technology
and costs have been changing rapidly, especially since the introduction of fieldbusdigital communication.
Therefore, caution must be used when applying correlations based on old technology, often from the
1960’s.

Table 6.1 Sensors (conventional technology with transmitter, additional cost for “smart” features to be
compatible with fieldbus technology)
Process variable Cost Comments
(US$ in 2003)
Flow - orifice 500-3500 Flange connections, 2-12 in pipe
Flow - pitot and similar 1000-2000 Calibration costs extra
Flow - mass 1500-7000 1 in. pipe, cost depends strongly on sensor
technology
Flow - positive displacement 3000-5000 1500 SCMH
Flow - turbine 3000 2-3 in. pipe, cost depends strongly on pipe
size
Flow - venture/nozzle 500-1000 6 in. pipe, costs vary depending on sensor type
and materials of construction
Temperature - thermocouple 200 Cost includes thermal well. With transmitter
could cost up to $2000
 Temperature - RTD 100-250 Cost includes thermal well. With transmitter
could cost up to $2000
Temperature - thermister See RTD
Temperature - optical pyrometer 500-5500 Thermal imaging much more expensive
Temperature - bimetalic 65 For local display only
Pressure - bourdon 300 Local indication
Pressure - electronic 1000-4000 Many technologies (See Liptak, 2003)
Level - pressure difference 1500 Local indicators few hundred dollars
Level - float 2000-5000 Switch or local indicator lower cost
Level - displacement 2500
Level - Laser 4000-6000
Level - Radar 1500-5000
Level - Ultransonic 650-2500
Analyzer - sampling system 3500-7000 Single sample stream
Analyzer - installation -- Varies depending upon the location, safety
requirements, and analyzer technology
Analyzer -- Must determine the cost for each analyzer type
individually

Table 6.2 Controllers

Controller Cost Comments
(US$ in 2003)
Temperature - regulators 400-1000
Pressure - regulators 150-3000 Depends on pipe size and technology
Flow - regulator 250-1750
Controller, electronic or digital 500-6000 Depends on flexibility in algorithms and
number of controllers in single digital
controller
Controller - pneumatic 1000-2500
Distributed Digital Control -- See Liptak (1999) for a sample cost estimate
System for an integrated system

Table 6.3 Final elements

Final Element Cost * Comments
(US$ in 2003)
Actuator -- Cost included in valve cost
Ball valve body 2000 4 in piping
Butterfly body 2000 
Globe valve body 3000 
Diaphragm valve body 300-600 ²
Accessories - positioner 600 
Accessories - handwheel 500 Maximum cost
Accessories - limit switch 50-150
indicator
* Note that all valve costs depend on the pipe size, materials of construction, etc. See Liptak (1999) and
other resources for correlations of cost vs. pipe size and materials of construction.

7.0 Process Drawings

Engineers document their work using many complementary methods. Certainly, written documentation is
important. However, drawings play an equally important place in documentation because of the
complexity of the systems being documented and the precise and easily read nature of process drawings.
This section provides a brief explanation of the major categories of drawings and WWW links for further
information.

The major categories of drawings are introduced in the following.

  This drawing shows only the major units and process flows. The
Block Flow general goal is to provide an overview of the process to build
understanding. An entire plant can be shown in a single drawing.
Typically, each unit is shown as a rectangle (block), and the blocks are
connected by solid lines with the flow direction indicated with arrows.
No special symbols or guidelines are used in developing these
drawings.

  Process This drawing shows all major equipment and process flows in a single
Flow Diagram drawing. Symbols and identifications (e.g., T-201) are used to represent
(PFD) unit operations, and each stream is designated with a number. The
stream properties are given in associated tables, but utility flow rates
(e.g., air, steam, fuel, etc.) are typically not given.

In some drawings, a few basic control loops are provided to indicate

how process flows and other key variables are maintained at desired
values.

The drawing is not to scale.

  Piping These drawings give details on all piping, including valves (automated
and and manual), by-pass lines, pipe sizes, sample points, etc. In addition,
Instrumentatio all instrumentation is shown. A moderate level of mechanical detail is
n Drawing provided for process equipment, so that the piping and instrumentation
(P&ID) can be precisely documented.

International symbol standards are used for piping, equipment and

instruments (ISA, 1992).

Many pages of drawings are required for a single unit. The drawings
are not to scale.

  Each equipment (e.g., drum, fired heater, etc.) is constructed to the

Equipment specifications in the Equipment Mechanical Drawings and associated
Mechanical text explanations.
Drawings
  Three- Equipment must be located so that they do not interfere with each other
dimensional and so that space is available for people to travel through the process
Layout and perform tasks, such as maintenance. To ensure the layout is
adequate, a three-dimensional representation is required. In the past,
physical models were constructed to scale; however, a 3-D graphical
representation is the standard technique used today.

While these general categories are used widely, each organization applies its own modifications.
Therefore, every set of drawings should be accompanied by a key that defines the use of symbols and
other drawing standards.
Many other drawings are used to document special issues. Examples are given in the following.
  Details of piping, sampling, etc.
  Loop drawings of connections between a sensor and valve in each control loop
  Logic diagrams for safety and other discrete control systems
  Plot plans of the entire site

In addition, documentation is required for cost estimation for the purchase, construction and start up of
the process. This information is usually included in tables; some typical contents are pump/motor power,
vessel size, piping diameter and lengths, pressures, temperatures, and materials of construction. Also,
written documentation is required to purchase every one of the thousands and thousands of items. For
example, a specification sheet is required for every sensor, transmitter, and valve.

Links to WWW Resources

Process Drawings: This sample chapter from Turton, et. al. (1998) discusses the
range of drawings used in process design and presents a few examples.

8.0 Solved Examples

Example 1) Temperature measurement before a chemical reactor:

The feed temperature, T3, to an isothermal chemical reactor should be controlled very accurately
in the range of 400K. The product quality is measured only once every shift by laboratory
analysis. The operator adjusts the set point of the feed temperature controller to achieve the
desired product quality. What temperature sensor do you recommend?
Solution:
Here, high accuracy is required in the range of 400K. Since accuracy is required, a
thermocouple is not recommended. Since the temperature range is outside the region for a
thermistor, an RTD sensor is recommended.

Example 2) Distillation tray temperature control:

You have decided to use a tray temperature measurement in place of an analyzer for distillate
composition control. This approach is referred to as inferential control (see Marlin, 2000,
Chapter 17) and is used often to achieve reasonable control with low cost equipment. You would
like to provide another measurement on the same tray to validate the sensor used for control.
How would you do this?
Solution:
Recall that the temperature sensor is protected from the process environment by a thermowell.
Since we generally try to reduce the number of “holes” in a pressure vessel, we will place a
second thermocouple in the same thermowell. This will provide a check on the temperature for
most possible faults, such as a wire break. Clearly, both sensors will respond in the same manner
to a fault like a buildup of material on the thermowell that slows the response of the sensors.
This type of fault is not very likely in a distillation tower. This fault could occur in a chemical
reactor, where coke can build up over time.

Example 3) Temperature measurement in a packed bed reactor:

A highly exothermic chemical reaction is taking place in an adiabatic, catalytic packed bed
reactor. Where would you place the temperature sensor to ensure that the maximum temperature
is not exceeded?
Solution:
This would be a simple problem if the flow through the reactor were plug flow; then, a single
sensor at the outlet would provide sufficient information. However, the flow is not likely to
closely approximate ideal, plug flow, so sensors should be placed throughout the bed. The
details vary with the reactor size, catalyst activity and thermal properties, but typically, these
reactors have many thermowells, each with several thermocouples measuring temperatures at
different points down the length of the reactor. An important feature of the feedback control
system would be to monitor all temperatures and control the highest to a set point.

Example 4) Temperature measurement:

You would like to measure a temperature in a flash separator, T 6. Great accuracy is not desired,
because we plan to install an onstream analyzer. The stream pressure is 10 MPa, and the
temperature range is 273-373 K. What sensor would you select?
Solution:
Since high accuracy is not required, a thermocouple is recommended. The pressure has no
influence on the selection, and the thermocouple recommended in Table 1 is Type J for this
temperature range.

Example 5) Flow measurement for gas with changing composition:

You want to measure the flow rate of a hydrocarbon stream. Great accuracy is not required; the
accuracy typically achieved with an orifice meter (±3-5%) is acceptable. Because of changes to
upstream operation, the composition of the stream can change within the limits shown in the data
below; however the pressure does not vary significantly. What sensor do you recommend?

Avg. MW 16 18.8

Solution:
The standard orifice meter measures only DP = P1- P3 and assumes the coefficient of resistance
and the density are constant, i.e., Fsensor = Kv (DP/r0)0.5 , with r0 the density at the design or base
case. The error due to the assumption can be evaluated by comparing the square root of the
densities at the design point and the maximum deviation in molecular weight.
The error due to the change in density will be a bias of -8 percent, which would be in addition to
other inaccuracies associated with an orifice meter. The actual volumetric flow rate would be
less than recorded by a sensor assuming constant density. If the flow meter were the basis for
purchasing the stream, you would be paying 8 percent too much! Where accuracy is needed,
compensation should be applied by measuring the molecular weight of the gas and correcting as
shown in the equation above.

Example 6) Effect of pressure on a gas flow sensor:

You wish to measure the vapor product from a distillation column. You have ascertained that an
orifice sensor is a good choice. Decide the proper location for the sensor, F1 or F2.

Solution:
The two likely choices for measuring the gas stream are 1) immediately after the drum before the
pressure control valve and 2) after the control valve. The key factor is accuracy; which location
more closely satisfies the assumptions associated with the standard orifice sensor? Since the
 standard orifice sensor assumes constant density, you should select the location that has the most
constant pressure. The pressure in the overhead circuit is controlled, while the pressure
downstream from the valve will vary with the flow rate. Therefore, the sensor before the control
valve, F1, is chosen.

Example 7) Pressure drop in measuring gas flows:

The flow of gas through a compressor is a very important variable. It is one important factor for
the amount of energy required. In addition, a minimum flow rate is required to prevent unstable
flow and mechanical damage to the compressor. What sensor would you recommend to measure
flow at the suction to a compressor?

Solution:
The work required by the compressor depends on several factors, including pressure rise. To
achieve the desired (low) pressure in the process upstream of the compressor, the suction
pressure must be lower to account for the non-recoverable pressure loss due to the flow sensor.
Thus, the pressure loss requires additional work to achieve the desired inlet and outlet pressures.
For this reason, a sensor with a very small pressure drop is selected. Usually, this would be an
annubar or pitot tube.
Example 8) Measuring a highly variable flow rate:
We want to measure the vapor flow rate, F4. The vapor flow rate from a flash drum varies over a
large range because of changes in the upstream operation. The variation in total flow rate is
about 20-100% of its maximum during normal operation; the composition does not change
appreciably. You want to measure the flow rate with moderate accuracy, say ± 5% of its true
value during normal operation; you do not need to measure the stream accurately during startup
or shutdown. Decide which sensor to use.

Solution:
Let us discuss orifice meter technology first since it is inexpensive and very high accuracy is not
required. The 5:1 range of variation is too great for accurate measurement using one orifice
sensor. Therefore, you could install two sensors on the same pipe, one with a small range (0-
35%) and one with a large range (0-100%). When the flow is small, the sensor with the smaller
range would provide acceptable accuracy, and when the flow is large, above 35%, the sensor
with the larger range would provide acceptable accuracy. Both sensors could use the same
orifice meter. Other meters can provide this range with good accuracy and a single sensor.
Examples are a turbine meter and various types of mass flow meters. See the Section 2.2 for
details.

Example 9) Flashing flow:

The feed to a distillation tower is preheated to recover energy from a process stream that is not
hot enough to use for reboiling. You want to measure and control the feed flow rate to the
distillation tower. Decide where to locate the sensor and valve for the feed flow controller.
Solution:
The feed is totally liquid when passing through the pump and is heated in the exchanger before
entering the distillation tower. As you recall, the orifice sensor will not measure a two-phase
flow; therefore, the sensor should be placed upstream of the heat exchanger. To maintain the
highest pressure and prevent vaporization in the heat exchanger, the valve should be placed after
the exchanger. The correct design is shown in the figure.

Example 10) Valve characteristic for linear loop gain:

The isothermal CSTR reactor with constant volume has its effluent concentration of reactant
controlled by adjusting the feed flow rate. The reaction is first order. Also, the composition
controller is a PI algorithm, and the level controller is a tightly tuned PI. Determine the valve
characteristic.
Solution:
The steady-state model for the system is easily derived from a component material balance.

This can be rearranged to express the concentration as a function of the feed flow.

The steady-state gain is given by

The gain always is positive. At low flow rates, the gain has its highest value, and as the flow
increases (the control valve opens) the gain decreases in magnitude. Therefore, the proper
installed valve characteristic would have a low gain at small valve openings and a large gain at
large valve openings. This is generally the shape of an equal percentage characteristic. To
finalize the design, we would have to substitute the numerical values for the parameters, and
also, we would have to determine how much the supply pressure changes with valve opening.

Example 11) Low pressure drop valve:

The flue gas flow rate leaving a fired heater is adjusted to control the pressure in the fired heater.
Select a valve for this application.
Solution:
Generally, the volumetric flow rate of flue gas is high because of the large amount of nitrogen
and the high temperature of the gas. Also, the fired heater is operated near atmospheric
pressure. Therefore, a valve with a very low pressure drop is required. The standard choice is a
butterfly valve, also called a stack damper. Note that a low pressure drop valve is also used when
the cost of pumping or compression is very high.

Example 12) Location of flow valve around a pump:

The liquid from the bottom accumulator of a distillation tower is pumped to a downstream unit.
Decide where the flow control valve should be located.
Solution:
The valve is required to provide a variable resistance for flow control. At least conceptually, the
valve could be located before or after the pump. However, the liquid leaving the tower (or
reboiler) is at its bubble point, so that any significant pressure drop in the valve located before
the pump will lead to vaporization in the valve and partial vapor flow through the pump, leading
to cavitation and damage. Therefore, the valve is located at the outlet of the pump, where the
pressure is much higher and cavitation does not occur.

9.0 Terminology
Experience has shown that considerable misunderstanding can occur when engineers discuss the
performance of process instrumentation. Clearly, this situation is likely to impede education; in
addition, it can cause serious errors in specifying and purchasing instrumentation to satisfy
requirements. Purchasers and suppliers must share an unequivocal understanding of the
performance specifications of equipment, including instrumentation. Thus, professional
organizations have prepared standard definitions of key terms (e.g., ISA, 1979); practicing
engineers are well advised to use these standards.

For a much more extensive glossary, select this button to be

directed to a WWW site.

A few of the most frequently used terms are presented here.

Accuracy: Degree of conformance of a value to a recognized, accepted standard value.
Accuracy is expressed as the maximum positive and negative deviation from the standard for
specific conditions, usually expressed as the inaccuracy as a percent of the value, instrument
range, or full-scale value. It includes causes of inaccuracy, including linearity, repeatability and
hysteresis.
Dead Band : The range through which an input can be varied, upon reversal of direction,
without causing an effect in the output signal.
Drift : An undesired change in output over a period of time that is unrelated to the input and
operating conditions.
Hysteresis: The property that the output depends on the history of the input and current direction
of change.
Linearity : The closeness of the calibration curve to a straight line. It is expressed as the
maximum deviation of the calibration curve and the specified straight-line characteristic.
Range : The region within which a value is measured, received or transmitted, expressed as
lower and upper range values.
Repeatability: The closeness of agreement among consecutive measurements of the output for
the same value of the input under the same operating conditions and approaching from the same
direction. It is usually reported as non-repeatability in percent of span and does not include
hysteresis.
Reproducibility: The closeness of the output reading for the same value of input over a period of
time approaching in both directions. It is usually reported as non-reproducibility as a percent of
span and includes hysteresis, drift, repeatability and dead band.
Response Time : Time required for an output to reach a specified percentage of its final value as
a result of a step change in input.
Span : The difference between the upper and lower limits of range.

10.0 Conclusions
Basic principles of physics and chemistry provide the basis for understanding process
instrumentation, while the selection of the proper equipment depends on the needs of the specific
application. This section has introduced many of the more common instruments used in the
process industries. The material in this section provides the reader with sufficient understanding
to begin industrial practice but should not be used for industrial practice; reliable and up-to-date
information on process instrumentation is available from equipment manufacturers and
professional societies. The ISA data sheets (ISA, 1992) provide a helpful checklist of the
information needed when specifying equipment in preparation for interactions with equipment
suppliers.