LECTURE 1

FLOW MEASUREMENT
In this module we will illustrate and analyze some of the more common methods for measuring flow rate in conduits, including the pitot tube, venturi, nozzle, and orifice meters. This is by no means intended to be a comprehensive or exhaustive treatment, however, as there are a great many other devices in use for measuring flow rate, such as turbine, vane, Coriolis, ultrasonic, and magnetic flow meters, just to name a few. The examples considered here demonstrate the application of the fundamental conservation principles to the analysis of several of the most common devices. We also consider control valves in this chapter, because they are frequently employed in conjunction with the measurement of flow rate to provide a means of controlling flow. THE PITOT TUBE As previously discussed, the volumetric flow rate of a fluid through a conduit can be determined by integrating the local (point) velocity over the cross section of the conduit: (1) If the conduit cross section is circular, this becomes (2) The pitot tube is a device for measuring vr, the local velocity at a given position in the conduit, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The measured velocity is then used in Eq. (2) to determine the flow rate. It consists of a differential pressure measuring device (e.g., a manometer, transducer, or DP cell) that measures the pressure difference between two tubes. One tube is attached to a hollow probe that can be positioned at any radial location in the conduit, and the other is attached to the wall of the conduit in the same axial plane as the end of the probe. The local velocity of the streamline that impinges on the end of the probe is v (r). The fluid element that impacts the open end of the probe must come to rest at that point, because there is no flow through the probe or the DP cell; this is known as the stagnation point. The Bernoulli equation can be applied to the fluid streamline that impacts the probe tip:

(3) Where, point 1 is in the free stream just upstream of the probe and point 2 is just inside the open end of the probe (the stagnation point). Since the friction loss is negligible in the free stream from 1 to 2, and v2 = 0 because the fluid in the probe is stagnant, Eq. (3) can be solved for v1 to give

(4) The measured pressure difference P is the difference between the stagnation pressure in the velocity probe at the point where it connects to the a manometer and the static pressure at the corresponding point in the tube connected to the wall. Since there is no flow in the vertical direction, the difference in pressure between any two vertical elevations is strictly hydrostatic. Thus, the pressure difference measured at the DP cell is the same as that at the elevation of the probe, because the static head between point 1 and the pressure device is the same as that between point 2 and the pressure device, so that P =P2 - P1.

FIGURE 1 Pitot tube.

LECTURE 2 THE VENTURI METER This is other device, however, that can be used to determine the flow rate from a single measurement. These are sometimes referred to as obstruction meters, because the basic principle involves introducing an obstruction (e.g., a constriction) into the flow channel and then measuring the pressure drop across the obstruction that is related to the flow rate. the venturi meter is , illustrated in Figs. 2. The fluid flows through a reduced area, which results in an increase in the velocity at that point. The corresponding change in pressure between point 1 upstream of the constriction and point 2 at the position of the minimum area (maximum velocity) is measured and is then related to the flow rate through the energy balance. The velocities are related by the continuity equation, and the Bernoulli equation relates the velocity change to the pressure change: (5)

FIGURE 2 VENTURI METER

LECTURE 3 THE ORIFICE METER The simplest and most common device for measuring flow rate in a pipe is the orifice meter, illustrated in Fig. 10-7. This is an obstruction meter that consists of a plate with a hole in it that is inserted into the pipe, and the pressure drop across the plate is measured. The major difference between this device and the venturi and nozzle meters is the fact that the fluid stream leaving the orifice hole contracts to an area considerably smaller than that ofthe orifice hole itself. This is called the vena contracta, and it occurs because the fluid has considerable inward radial momentum as it converges into the orifice hole, which causes it to continue to flow inward for a distance downstream of the orifice before it starts to expand to fill the pipe. If the pipe diameter is D, the orifice diameter is d, and the diameter of the vena contracta is d2, the contraction ratio for the vena contracta is defined as The complete Bernoulli equation, as applied between point 1 up stream of the orifice where the diameter is D and point 2 in the vena contracta where the diameter is d2, is

(10)

FIGURE 3 Orifice Meter As for the other obstruction meters, when the continuity equation is used to eliminate the upstream velocity from Eq. (10), the resulting expression for the mass flow rate through the orifice is

LECTURE 4

ROTAMETER
A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube. It belongs to a class of meters called variable area meters, which measure flow rate by allowing the cross-sectional area the fluid travels through to vary, causing some measurable effect.

F IGURE 4 Rota Meter

A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow rate more area (between the float and the tube) is needed to accommodate the flow, so the float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with spheres and ellipsoids being the most common. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as the fluid passes. This allows you to tell if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is free. Readings are usually taken at the top of the widest part of the float; the center for an ellipsoid, or the top for a cylinder. Some manufacturers may use a different standard, so it is always best to check the documentation provided with the device. Note that the "float" does not actually float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the fluid, otherwise it will float to the top even if there is no flow. Advantages

A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent properties of the fluid, along with gravity, to measure flow rate. A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap materials, allowing for its widespread use.

Disadvantages

Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically oriented and right way up, with the fluid flowing upward. Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float, graduations on a given rotameter will only be accurate for a given substance at a given temperature. The main property of importance is the density of the fluid; however, viscosity may also be significant. Floats are ideally designed to be insensitive to viscosity; however, this is seldom verifiable from manufacturers' specifications. Either separate rotameters for different densities and viscosities may be used, or multiple scales on the same rotameter can be used. Rotameters normally require the use of glass (or other transparent material), otherwise the user cannot see the float. This limits their use in many industries to benign fluids, such as water. Rotameters are not easily adapted for reading by machine; although magnetic floats that drive a follower outside the tube are available.

LECTURE 5

Anemometer
An anemometer is a device for measuring wind speed, and is a common weather station instrument. The term is derived from the Greek word anemos, meaning wind. Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the wind's speed, and those that measure the wind's pressure; but as there is a close connection between the pressure and the speed, an anemometer designed for one will give information about both. 1. Velocity anemometers
o o o o o o

1.1 Cup anemometers 1.2 Windmill anemometers 1.3 Hot-wire anemometers 1.4 Laser Doppler anemometers 1.5 Sonic anemometers 1.6 Ping-pong ball anemometers

2. Pressure anemometers
o o o

2.1 Plate anemometers 2.2 Tube anemometers 2.3 Effect of density on measurements

LECTURE 6

Force on Immersed Bodies

Introduction: In engineering fields there are various problems which involve the fluid around the submersed bodies. In such problems either a fluid may be flowing around submerged stationary body or body may be flowing through a large mass of stationary fluid. Examples: Motion of very small objects such as sand particles in air or water. Large bodies such as airplane, submarines, automobiles, ships etc moving through air or water Structure such as buildings and bridges etc which are submerged in air or water. Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Body: Whenever there is relative motion between a real fluid and a body, the fluid exerts a force on a body and the body exerts equal and opposite force on the fluid. A body fully immersed in a real fluid may be subjected to two kinds of forces called drag force and lift force. Drag force: The component of force in the direction of flow on a submerged body is called drag force (FD). Lift force: The component of force in the perpendicular to the flow is called the lift force (FL). In the symmetrical body moving through an ideal fluid (no viscosity) at a uniform velocity, the pressure distribution around a body is symmetrical and hence the resultant force acting on the body is zero. However real fluids such as air, water, posses viscosity and if it is moved through these fluid at a uniform velocity, the body experiences a resistance to motion. For the symmetrical body such as sphere and cylinder facing the flow is symmetrical, there is no lift force. For the production of lift force there must be asymmetry of flow, but drag force exists always. It is possible to create drag without lift but impossible to create lift without drag. The fluid viscosity affects the flow around the body causing the force on the body accordingly. At low Reynolds' Number the fluid is deformed in very wide zone

The relative wind acting on the airplane produces a certain amount of force which is called (unsurprisingly) the total aerodynamic force. This force can be resolved into components, called lift and drag, as shown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Total Aerodynamic Force = Lift + Drag Here are the official, conventional definitions of the so-called four forces:

Lift is the component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to the relative wind. Drag is the component of aerodynamic force parallel to the relative wind. Weight is the force directed downward from the center of mass of the airplane towards the center of the earth. It is proportional to the mass of the airplane times the strength of the gravitational field. Thrust is the force produced by the engine. It is directed forward along the axis of the engine.

It is ironic that according to convention, the total aerodynamic force is not listed among the four forces.

Figure 2: The Four Forces Low Speed Descent

LECTURE 7 Stokes' Law is written as, where Fd is the drag force of the fluid on a sphere, m is the fluid viscosity, V is the velocity of the sphere relative to the fluid, and d is the diameter of the sphere. Using this equation, along with other well-known principle of physics, we can write an expression that describes the rate at which the sphere falls through a quiescent, viscous fluid. We must draw a free body diagram (FBD) of the sphere. That is we must sketch the sphere and all of the internal and external forces acting on the sphere as it is dropped into the fluid. Figure below shows a sketch of the entire system (sphere dropping through a column of liquid). The FBD is the dashed cross-section that has been removed and exploded in the left portion of this figure.

Figure : Free-body diagram of a sphere in a quiescent fluid.

LECTURE 9

The hydraulic diameter or equivalent, DH, is a commonly used term when handling flow in noncircular tubes and channels. Using this term one can calculate many things in the same way as for a round tube. Definition : hydraulic radius DH=4A/P, where A is the wetted cross sectional area and P is the wetted perimeter of the crosssection. Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the volume of voids over the total volume, between 01, or as a percentage between 0 100%. The term is used in multiple fields including pharmaceutics, ceramics, metallurgy, materials, manufacturing, earth sciences and construction.

rH= A/P

Sphericity is a measure of how spherical (round) an object is. As such, it is a specific example of a compactness measure of a shape. Defined by Wadell in 1935, the sphericity, , of a particle is the ratio of the surface area of a sphere (with the same volume as the given particle) to the surface area of the particle.

LECTURE 10

Flow through a packed bed

Flow through a packed bed is dependent on the Reynolds number, similar to the flow through a straight pipe. For a packed bed, the Reynolds number is dependent on not only the four normal properties, density, , viscosity,, velocity, v, and the equivalent spherical diameter, Dp, but it is also dependent on the void fraction,

(1) The Ergun equation is a combination of both the Kozeny-Carmen and Burke-Plumber equations, which both look at energy losses due to flow through a packed bed. The Kozeny-Carmen equation models laminar flow through a packed bed, taking into account the energy losses due to viscosity. At low flow rates, viscosity will be most important in fluid flow. Therefore, in situations of laminar flow, the timing of fluidization would also depend on viscous forces. The Kozeny-Carmen equation, seen below, is valid for NRe,p < 10

(2) where p is the pressure drop from the top to the bottom of the column. Also, there is a strong dependence on the void fraction, . Experimentally, this parameter must be determined accurately in order to yield accurate results about the pressure drop. The Burke-Plummer equation examines turbulent flow through a packed bed and accounts for kinetic energy losses such as wall effects rather than viscous energy losses. When the flow rate of a fluid increases from laminar to turbulent, the viscosity of a fluid decreases and becomes negligible at high flow rates. Here, there is a larger dependence on the velocity, while the dependence on the void fraction is still large . (3) Also, L is the depth of the packing material. This model is valid for turbulent flow, such that NeR,p > 1000. Prior to Ergun, experimenters did not how these two resistances were related to each other and how flow through a packed bed was modeled in the transition zone between laminar and turbulent flow. Ergun determined experimentally that the two resistances could simply be summed, such that (4)

Fluidization is defined as -- an operation through which fine solids are transformed into a fluid like state through contact with either a gas or a liquid. Under the fluidized state, the gravitational pull on granular solid particles is offset by the fluid drag on them. Thus the particles remain in a semi-suspended condition. A fluidized bed displays characteristics similar to those of a liquid, as explained below with the help of Figure below.

Figure A fluidized bed demonstrates all the characteristics of a fluid. 1. The static pressure at any height is approximately equal to the weight of bed solids per unit cross section above that level. 2. The bed surface maintains a horizontal level, irrespective of how the bed is titled; also the bed assumes the shape of the vessel. 3. The solids from the bed may be drained like a liquid through an orifice at the bottom or on the side. 4. An object denser than the bulk of the bed will sink, while one lighter than the bed will float. Thus, a steel ball sinks in the bed, while a light shuttlecock floats on the surface. 5. Particles are well mixed, and the bed maintains a nearly uniform temperature throughout its body when heated. An increase in the gas velocity through a bed of granular solids brings about changes in the mode of gas-solid contact in many ways. With changes in gas velocity the bed moves from one state or regime to another. Fluidized beds are used as a technical process which has the ability to promote high levels of contact between gases and solids. In a fluidized bed a characteristic set of basic properties can be utilised, indispensable to modern process and chemical engineering, these properties include:

Extremely high surface area contact between fluid and solid per unit bed volume High relative velocities between the fluid and the dispersed solid phase. High levels of intermixing of the particulate phase. Frequent particle-particle and particle-wall collisions.

Basic model
When the packed bed has a fluid passed over it, the pressure drop of the fluid is approximately proportional to the fluid's superficial velocity. In order to transition from a packed bed to a fluidized condition, the gas velocity is continually raised. For a freestanding bed there will exist a point, known as the minimum or incipient fluidisation point, whereby the bed's mass is suspended directly by the flow of the fluid stream. The corresponding fluid velocity, known as the "minimum fluidization velocity", umf. Beyond the minimum fluidization velocity (), the bed material will be suspended by the gas-stream and further increases in the velocity will have a reduced effect on the pressure, owing to sufficient percolation of the gas flow. Thus the pressure drop from for u > umf is relatively constant. At the base of the vessel the apparent pressure drop multiplied by the cross-section area of the bed can be equated to the force of the weight of the solid particles (less the buoyancy of the solid in the fluid).

pw = Hw(1 w)(s f)g

Fig. A diagram of a fluidized bed

LECTURE 1

What is the Pump? Transferring the Fluids by increasing the pressure Classification Reciprocating displacement Rotary displacement Centrifugal Air displacement How we can select a pump? Amount of the fluid The fluid properties Head required Type of the flow Power supply Cost compared to efficiency
Pump Classification Classified by operating principle

Pumps

Dynamic

Others (e.g.
Impulse, Buoyancy)

Positive Displacement

Centrifugal

Special effect

Rotary

Reciprocating

Internal gear

External gear

Lobe

Slide vane

Non-Mechanical Pumps

A, steam jet ejector is a pump-like device that uses the Venturi effect of a convergingdiverging nozzle to convert the pressure energy of a motive fluid to velocity energy which creates a low pressure zone that draws in and entrains a suction fluid. After passing through the throat of the injector, the mixed fluid expands and the velocity is reduced which results in recompressing the mixed fluids by converting velocity energy back into pressure energy. The motive fluid may be a liquid, steam or any other gas. The entrained suction fluid may be a gas, a liquid, a slurry, or a dust-laden gas stream. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical modern ejector. It consists of a motive fluid inlet nozzle and a converging-diverging outlet nozzle. Water, air, steam, or any other fluid at high pressure provides the motive force at the inlet. An injector is a more complex device containing at least three cones. That used for delivering water to a steam locomotive boiler takes advantage of the release of the energy contained within the latent heat of evaporation to increase the pressure to above that within the boiler.

The Venturi effect, a particular case of Bernoulli's principle, applies to the operation of this device. Fluid under high pressure is converted into a high-velocity jet at the throat of the convergent-divergent nozzle which creates a low pressure at that point. The low pressure draws the suction fluid into the convergent-divergent nozzle where it mixes with the motive fluid. In essence, the pressure energy of the inlet motive fluid is converted to kinetic energy in the form of velocity head at the throat of the convergent-divergent nozzle. As the mixed fluid then expands in the divergent diffuser, the kinetic energy is converted back to pressure energy at the diffuser outlet in accordance with Bernoulli's principle.

An airlift pump is a simple pump which is powered by compressed air. The only energy required is air. This air is usually compressed by a compressor or a blower. The air is injected in the lower part of a pipe that transports a liquid. It usually bubbles into another larger diameter pipe. By buoyancy the air, which has a lower density than the liquid, rises quickly. By fluid pressure, the liquid is taken in the ascendant air flow and moves in the same direction as the air. The calculation of the volume flow of the liquid is possible thanks to the physics of two-phase flow.

Type of Pumps
Positive Displacement Pumps

For each pump revolution

Fixed amount of liquid taken from one end Positively discharged at other end

If pipe blocked Pressure rises Can damage pump

Used for pumping fluids other than water Reciprocating pump Displacement by reciprocation of piston plunger Used only for viscous fluids and oil wells Rotary pump Displacement by rotary action of gear, cam or vanes Several sub-types Used for special services in industry

Dynamic pumps
Mode of operation Rotating impeller converts kinetic energy into pressure or velocity to pump the fluid Two types Centrifugal pumps: pumping water in industry 75% of pumps installed Special effect pumps: specialized conditions

Piston pump A piston pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal reciprocates with the piston.[1] Piston pumps can be used to move liquids or compress gases.

A plunger pump is a type of positive displacement pump where the high-pressure seal is stationary and a smooth cylindrical plunger slides though the seal. This makes them different from piston pumps and allows them to be used at high pressures. This type of pump is often used to transfer municipal and industrial sewage. A diaphragm pump is a positive displacement pump that uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or teflon diaphragm and suitable nonreturn check valves to pump a fluid. Sometimes this type of pump is also called a membrane pump.

A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement.[1] They are one of the most common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. Gear pumps are also widely used in chemical installations to pump fluid with a certain viscosity. There are two main variations; external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear pumps which use an external and an internal spur gear. Gear pumps are positive displacement (or fixed displacement), meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump.

Fig. External gear pump design for hydraulic power applications.

Fig. Internal gear (Gerotor) pump design for high viscosity fluids.

Generally used in: 1. PETROCHEMICALS: Pure or filled bitumen, pitch, diesel oil, crude oil, lube oil etc. 2. CHEMICALS: Sodium silicate, acids, plastics, mixed chemicals, isocyanates etc. 3. PAINT & INK. 4. RESINS & ADHESIVES. 5. PULP & PAPER: acid, soap, lye, black liquor, kaolin, lime, latex, sludge etc. 6. FOOD: Chocolate, cacao butter, fillers, sugar, vegetable fats and oils, molasses, animal food etc.

Centrifugal Pumps
How do they work? Liquid forced into impeller Vanes pass kinetic energy to liquid: liquid rotates and leaves impeller Volute casing converts kinetic energy into pressure energy

Rotating and stationary components

Impeller Main rotating part that provides centrifugal acceleration to the fluid Number of impellers = number of pump stages Impeller classification: direction of flow, suction type and shape/mechanical construction

Shaft Transfers torque from motor to impeller during pump start up and operation Casings Functions Enclose impeller as pressure vessel Support and bearing for shaft and impeller Volute case Impellers inside casings Balances hydraulic pressure on pump shaft Circular casing Vanes surrounds impeller Used for multi-stage pumps

Assessment of pumps How to Calculate Pump Performance

Pump shaft power (Ps) is actual horsepower delivered to the pump shaft

Pump shaft power (Ps): Ps = Hydraulic power Hp / pump efficiency Pump Pump Efficiency (Pump): Pump = Hydraulic Power / Pump Shaft Power

Pump output/Hydraulic/Water horsepower (Hp) is the liquid horsepower delivered by the pump Hydraulic power (Hp): Hp = Q (m3/s) x Total head, hd - hs (m) x (kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000 hd = discharge head hs = suction head, = density of the fluid g = acceleration due to gravity

CAVITATION A centrifugal pump increases the fluid pressure by first imparting angular momentum (or kinetic energy) to the fluid, which is converted to pressure in the diffuser or volute section. Hence, the fluid velocity in and around the impeller is much higher than that either entering or leaving the pump, and the pressure is the lowest where the velocity is highest. The minimum pressure at which a pump will operate properly must be above the vapor pressure of the fluid; otherwise the fluid will vaporize (or boil), a condition known as cavitation. Obviously, the higher the temperature the higher the vapor pressure and the more likely that this condition will occur. When a centrifugal pump contains a gas or vapor it will still develop the same head, but because the pressure is proportional to the fluid density it will be several orders of magnitude lower than the pressure for a

liquid at the same head. This condition (when the pump is filled with a gas or vapor) is known as vapor lock, and the pump will not function when this occurs. However, cavitation may result in an even more serious condition than vapor lock. When the pressure at any point within the pump drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid, vapor bubbles will form at that point (this generally occurs on or near the impeller). These bubbles will then be transported to another region in the fluid where the pressure is greater than the vapor pressure, at which point they will collapse. This formation and collapse of bubbles occurs very rapidly and can create local shock waves, which can cause erosion and serious damage to the impeller or pump.

NPSH
To prevent cavitation, it is necessary that the pressure at the pump suction be sufficiently high that the minimum pressure anywhere in the pump will be above the vapor pressure. This required minimum suction pressure (in excess of the vapor pressure) depends upon the pump design, impeller size and speed, and flow rate and is called the minimum required net positive suction head (NPSH). Values of the minimum required NPSH for the pump in Fig. 8-2 are shown as dashed lines. The NPSH is almost independent of impeller diameter at low flow rates and increases with flow rate as well as with impeller diameter r at higher flow rates. A distinction is sometimes made between the minimum NPSH required to prevent cavitation (sometimes termed the NPSHR) and the actual head (e.g., pressure) available at the pump suction (NPSHA). A pump will not cavitate if NPSHA > (NPSHR + vapor pressure head).

Priming in Centrifugal Pump

All centrifugal pumps must be primed by filling them with water before they can operate. The objective of priming is to remove a sufficient amount of air from the pump and suction line to permit atmospheric pressure and submergence pressure to cause water to flow into the pump when pressure at the eye of the impeller is reduced below atmospheric as the impeller rotates. When axial-flow and mixed-flow pumps are mounted with the propellers submerged, there is normally no problem with re priming of these pumps because the submergence pressure causes water to refill the pumps as long as air can readily be displaced. On the other hand, radial-flow pumps are often located above the water source, and they can lose prime. Often, loss of prime occurs due to an air leak on the suction side of the pump. Volute or diffuser pumps may lose prime when water contains even small amounts of air or vapor. Prime will not be lost in a radial-flow pump if the water source is above the eye of the impeller and flow of water into the pump is unrestricted. In some cases pumps are primed by manually displacing the air in them with water every time the pump is restarted. Often, by using a foot valve or a check valve at the entrance to

the suction pipe, pumps can be kept full of water and primed when not operating. If prime is lost, the water must be replaced manually, or a vacuum pump can be used to remove air and draw water into the pump. A self-priming pump is one that will clear its passages of air and resume delivery of liquid without outside attention. Centrifugal pumps are not truly self-priming. So called self-priming centrifugal pumps are provided with an air separator in the form of a large chamber or reservoir on the discharge side of the pump. This separator allows the air to escape from the pump discharge and entraps the residual liquid necessary during re priming. Automatic priming of a pump is achieved by the use of a recirculation chamber which recycles water through the impeller until the pump is primed, or by the use of a small positive displacement pump which supplies water to the impeller. Pumping equipment for gases Essentially the same basic types of mechanical equipment are used for handling gases and liquids, though the construction may be very different in two cases. Under the normal range of operating pressures, the density of a gas is considerably less than that of a liquid so that higher speeds of operation can be employed and lighter valves fitted to the delivery and suction lines. Because of the lower viscosity of a gas there is a greater tendency for leak to occur, and therefore gas compressors are designed with smaller clearances between the moving parts. Since a large proportion of the energy of compression appears as heat in the gas, there will normally be a considerable increase in temperature which may limit the operation of the compressor unless suitable cooling can be effected. For this reason, gas compression is often carried out in a number of stages and the gas is cooled between each stage. Fans, Blowers, and Compressors Machinery for compressing and moving gases is conveniently considered from the standpoint of pressure difference produced in the equipment. This order is fans, blowers, compressors. Fans: The commonest method of moving gases under moderate pressures is by means of some type of fan. These are effective for pressures from 2 or 3 inch of water up to about 0.5 psi. Large fans are usually centrifugal, operating on exactly the same principle as centrifugal pumps. Their impeller blades, however, may be curved forward; this would lead to instability in a pump, but not in a fan. Since the change in density in a fan is small, the incompressible flow equations used in centrifugal pump calculations are often adequate. The fans may be classified into three types: the propeller type, the plate fan, and the multi-blade type.

The propeller type is represented by the familiar electric fan and is of no great importance for moving gases in plant practice. Plate fan consists of plate steel blades on radial arms inside a casing. These fans are satisfactory for pressures from 0 to 5 inch of water, have from 8 to 12 blades. Another variation of the steel-plate fan has blades curved like the vanes of centrifugal pump impellers and can be used for pressures up to 27 inch of water. The multi-blade fans are useful for pressures of from 0 to 5 inch of water. It is claimed that they have much higher efficiencies than the steel-plate fan. These fans will deliver much larger volumes for a given size of drum than steel-plate fans. Blowers: Any pump of the rotary type can be used as a blower. When so used they generally have only two or three lobes on the rotating parts. These blowers are used for pressures from 0.5 to 10 psi. Such blowers are often used for services where very large volumes must be delivered against pressures too high for a fan. They are being replaced in many cases by centrifugal blowers. The appearance of centrifugal blower resembles a centrifugal pump, except that the casing is narrower and larger impeller diameter. The operating speed is high, 3000 rpm or more. The reason for the high speed and large impeller diameter is that very high heads, measured in meters of low-density fluid, are needed to generate moderate pressure ratios. Compressors: Centrifugal compressors are multistage units containing a series of impellers on a single shaft, rotating at high speeds in a massive casing. These machines compress enormous volumes of air or process gas - up to 100 m3/sec at the inlet - to an outlet pressure of 20 atm. Smaller capacity machines discharge at pressures up to several hundred atmospheres. Interstage cooling is needed on the high pressure units. Axial flow machines handle even larger volumes of gas, up to 300 m3/sec, but at a lower discharge pressures of 2 to 10 atm. In these units the rotor vanes propel the gas axially from one set of vanes directly to the next. Interstage cooling is normally not required. Rotary positive displacement compressors can be used for discharge pressures to about 6 atm. Most compressors operating at discharge pressures above 3 atm are reciprocating positive displacement machines. When the required compression ratio is greater than that can be achieved in one cylinder, multistage compressors are used. The maximum pressure ratio normally obtained in a single cylinder is 10 but values above 6 are unusual.