Introduction To Computer Networks

INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer Networks
 Two or more computers or
communications devices
connected by transmission
media and channels and
guided by a set of rules for
communication purposes that
allow users to communicate
with each other and share
applications and data.
Information Technology Center 2

Why Networking?
• Sharing information — i.e. data communication
• Do you prefer these?
• Or this?

• Sharing hardware or software
• E.g. print document
• Centralize administration and support

• E.g. Internet-based, so everyone can access the same administrative or support
application from their PCs

How many kinds of Networks?
• Depending on one’s perspective, we can classify
networks in different ways
• Based on transmission media: Wired (UTP,
coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables) and Wireless
• Based on network size: LAN and WAN (and
MAN)
• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer
and Client/Server
• Based on topology (connectivity): Bus, Star,
Ring …
Transmission Media
Two main categories:
◦ Guided ― wires, cables
 Twisted-Pair cables:
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) cables
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) cables
 Coaxial cables
 Fiber-optic cables
◦ Unguided ― wireless transmission, e.g. radio,

microwave, infrared, sound

LAN and WAN
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Small network, short distance
• A room, a floor, a building
• Limited by no. of computers and distance covered
• Usually one kind of technology throughout the LAN
• Serve a department within an organization
• Examples:
• Network inside the Student Computer lab
• Network inside a small office
• Network inside your home

Wide Area Network (WAN)
• A network that uses long-range telecommunication links
to connect 2 or more LANs/computers housed in different
places far apart.
• Towns, states, countries
• Examples:
Your home
• Network of our Campus
• Internet
USA
WAN
IT Centre

Peer-to-Peer Networks
• Peer-to-peer network is also called workgroup
• No hierarchy among computers  all are equal
• No administrator responsible for the network
Peer-to-peer

• Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:
• Low cost
• Simple to configure
• User has full accessibility of the computer
• Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• May have duplication in resources
• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading
• Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:

• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future

Clients and Servers
• Network Clients (Workstation)
• Computers that request network resources or services
• Network Servers
• Computers that manage and provide network resources and services to clients
• Usually have more processing power, memory and hard disk space than
clients
• Run Network Operating System that can manage not only data, but also
users, groups, security, and applications on the network
• Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its performance and
reliability

• Advantages of client/server networks
• Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and
control
• Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
• Enhance security – only administrator can have access
to Server
• Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-
peer networks
• Disadvantages of client/server networks

• High cost for Servers
• Need expert to configure the network
• Introduce a single point of failure to the system

Topology ― 3 basic types
• How so many computers are connected together?
Bus Topology Ring Topology
Star Topology
Hub

• Bus Topology
• Simple and low-cost
• A single cable called a trunk (backbone, segment)
• Only one computer can send messages at a time
• Passive topology - computer only listen for, not
regenerate data
• Star Topology
• Each computer has a cable connected to a single point
• More cabling, hence higher cost
• All signals transmission through the hub; if down, entire
network down
• Depending on the intelligence of hub, two or more computers
may send message at the same time

Ring Topology
• Every computer serves as
a repeater to boost Ack T T
signals T
• Typical way to send data: T dat T dat
 Token passing a a
 only the computer who
gets the token can send T
T
data T Ack
T dat
Ack
• Disadvantages
a
 Difficult to add computers
T
 More expensive
T Ack
 If one computer fails,
whole network fails

Protocols
A set of predetermined rules
Protocol Suite
A group of inter-related protocols that are

necessary to perform a communication
function
Implemented in software and hardware that
is loaded on each host and network device
Individual protocols in a protocol suite may
be vendor-specific and proprietary
Function of Network Protocol
Network protocols
are used to allow
devices to
communicate
successfully

Network Technologies
 Based on bus topology; but can be used in star topology;
 Higher speed: first Fast Ethernet, then Gigabit Ethernet;
Ethernet  Most popular: inexpensive, easy to install and maintain.
 Based on a ring topology; but can use a star topology;

 Token-passing scheme to prevent collision of data;
Token Ring  The second most widely-used protocol after Ethernet.
 Based on client/server model of network computing;

 Uses packet switching technique for data transmission;
TCP/IP  Commonly used for Internet applications.
 Uses client/server model of network computing;

 Allows wireless devices to access the Internet and WWW;
WAP  Meets increasing demands for wireless Internet access.
Network Operating Systems
What is a Network Operating System?
An operating system that includes special
functions for connecting computers and
devices into a local-area network (LAN).
Some operating systems, such as UNIX and
the Mac OS, have networking functions
built in. The term network operating
system, however, is generally reserved for
software that enhances a basic operating
system by adding networking features.

Examples
Microsoft Windows Server 2003
Microsoft Windows Server 2008
UNIX
Linux
Mac OS X
Novell NetWare

Characteristics of a Network Operating
System
Network Operating Systems are based on a
client/server architecture in which a server
enables multiple clients to share resources

The Network Operating System can also do the following:
Centrally manage network resources, such as programs,
data and devices.
Secure access to a network.
Allow remote users to connect to a network.
Allow users to connect to other networks like the Internet.
Back up data and ensure its availability.
Allow for simple additions of clients and resources.
Monitor the status and functionality of network elements.
Distribute programs and software updates to clients.
Ensure efficient use of a server's capabilities.

Internet

What is the Internet?
The Internet is a global network of
computer networks utilizing a suite of
protocols called TCP/IP (Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) that
supports interconnection of a number of
different computer networks

The Internet covers large, international
Wide Area Networks (WAN’s) as well as
smaller Local Area Networks (LAN’s)
and individual computers connected to the
Internet worldwide

The Internet supports communication and
sharing of data, and offers vast amount of
information through a variety of services
and tools

What are the major Internet tools and
services?
Electronic mail (email)
Newsgroups
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
Telnet
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
World Wide Web (www)

services?
E-mail
The most popular use of the Internet
Available for free on the Web
◦ Yahoo Mail, Gmail, Hotmail, Eudoramail
Valid e-mail address consists of a
username and a domain name separated
by the @ sign
◦ ex. [email protected]

services?
Newsgroups
Service dedicated to discussions on a
particular topic through posted articles
Accessible through newsreaders
Names signify to users the topic of
discussion
◦ ex. http://www.vetclick.com

services?
IRC (Internet Relay Chat)
Allows real-time text based communication
through the Internet
Organized by topic of interest into “channels”
Discussion occurs in “chatrooms”
Some Websites have built-in chatrooms

services?
Telnet
Service that allows one computer to
access another computer
Enables the user to exchange data and
issue commands on the other computer,
the Telnet host
Mainly used by libraries to allow access
to information stored in their computers

services?
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
Allows the transfer or copying of files
from one computer to another
Ideal for procuring or sending files to a
remote computer
FTP Programs available freely
Modern browsers have built in FTP
capabilities

services?
World Wide Web (www)
Invented in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee, the web is the
fastest-growing Internet service.
Based on HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)
allowing users to access data in multimedia format
Simplest unit is the Webpage, primarily a document
encoded in HTML format that can be accessed by
using a browser
HTML links contents of a Webpage to each other as
well as to other Web pages through a hyperlink
Each page has an address, a Uniform Resource
Locator (URL)
What is the Internet’s history?
The Internet grew from ARPANET the first computer
network designed for the Advanced Research Projects
Agency (ARPA) of the U.S Department of Defense
ARPA sponsored research on interconnecting
geographically remote computers to allow
communication and sharing of data and resources
The goal was to create a communications network that
could exist even if parts of it was incapacitated

One of the early developments that proved
significant to the success of ARPANET (which
later on becomes the Internet) were “packet
switching” and “TCP/IP”
Packet switching involves digital systems that
transmit data in small packets that use the best
current path to their destination
TCP/IP is the core Internet protocol that allows
computers to communicate with each other

Realizing the value of interconnected
computers the academic community started
with its own research network
The NSFNet, created and named for the
National Science Foundation, linked academic
networks that connected universities and
research organizations around North America.
Networks from Europe and other countries
were connected to NSFNet making it the
backbone of the Internet.

ARPANET was decommissioned and the
management of the Internet was passed on to
the NSFNET
Restriction on commercial use was lifted
The emergence of World Wide Web, and Mosaic
brought an unprecedented growth to the Internet
NSFNET reverts back to a research project,
leaving the Internet in commercial hands and its
management to independent organizations

Summary
The Internet started as a military network called
ARPANET, which was involved in networking
research
The Internet later expanded to include
universities, businesses and individuals
Today, the Internet is also referred to as the Net,
Information Superhighway, and Cyberspace

How does the Internet work?
Protocols – standardized rules that define how
computers communicate and exchange data
IP address – unique number used to identify
computers on the Internet
Domain name – structured naming system to locate
computers on the Internet
URL – uniform naming scheme that specifies unique
addresses of Internet resources
Client and server – computing architecture used by
most Internet services

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
Protocol)
The Internet is a packet-switching network that uses
TCP/IP as its core protocol
TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that govern network
addresses and the organization and packaging of the
information to be sent over the Internet
◦ TCP – flow control and recovery of packets
◦ IP – addressing and forwarding of individual packets

Internet Protocols
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Protocol) - for
accessing and transmitting World Wide Web documents
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol Protocol) - for transferring
files from one computer to another
 Gopher Protocol - for accessing documents via Gopher
menus (no longer widely used)
 Telnet Protocol - allows users to logon to a remote
computer
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) for sending and
managing electronic mails (e-mail)

IP address
IP address is a unique address assigned to each
computer connected to the Internet
It is used by TCP/IP to route packets of
information from a sender to a location on the
Internet
IP address consist of four sets of numbers
ranging from 0 to 255 Ex. 249.7.13.53

IP address
192.168.213.4
The first two number sets designate the network
The third number set identifies the local network
The fourth number set identifies the particular
machine

Domain names
Domain names are the alias or English language
equivalent of a computer’s IP addresses
Domain Name System (DNS) allows the use of
easier to remember domain names instead of IP
addresses to locate computers on the Internet
Domain Name Resolvers scattered across the
Internet translate domain names into IP
addresses

Domain names
Domain names have two parts:
◦ First part names the host computer
◦ Second part identifies the top level domain
Top level domains (TLD) – identifies the type of
host
◦ Generic Top Level Domains
◦ Country Code Top Level Domains
Domain names are used in URLs and e-mail
addresses

Top Level Domains
.com – commercial/company site
.edu/ac - educational/academic
.gov – government site
.org – non-profit organization
.mil – military sites
.int – international organizations
.net – network providers

Additional Top Level Domains
.aero - restricted use by the air transportation industry
.biz - general use by businesses
.coop - restricted use by cooperatives
.info - general use by both commercial and non-
commercial sites
.museum - restricted use by museums
.name - general use by individuals
.pro - restricted use by certified professionals and
professional entities

Country Code Top Level Domains
.lk – Sri Lanka
.au – Australia .ph – Philippines
.cn – China .sg – Singapore
.fj – Fiji .uk – United Kingdom
.id – Indonesia .us – United States
.jp – Japan .tw - Taiwan
.mn – Mongolia .vn - Vietnam
The complete list can be accessed at
http://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htm

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
 Each Internet document or file has a unique address
called a URL
 The URL comprises of three parts:
◦ Protocol – lets the computer know how to process the
information it receives
◦ Domain name – Internet address of the computer
hosting the site and storing the documents
◦ Path – lets the computer which directory and file to
access

What is URL?
UNIFORM RESOURCE LOCATOR
Address
Address of
of Internet
Internet server
server that
that uses
uses the
the hypertext
hypertext transfer
transfer protocol
protocol
The
The top
top level
level domain
domain
The
The secondary
secondary domain
domain signifying
signifying aa commercial
commercial File
File type
type
name
name site
site
http://www.amazon.com/books/children.html
Signifies
Signifies that
that the
the site
site is
is part
part of
of the
the World
World Wide
Wide Web
Web Actual
Actual page
page
Signifies
Signifies folder
folder where
where
webpage
webpage isis located
located

http://www.amazon.com/books/children.html
 "http“
◦ transfer protocol
 "www"
◦ server name
 “amazon"
◦ second-level domain name
 “com"
◦ top-level domain name
 "books"
◦ directory name
 “children"
◦ file name
 "html"
◦ file type

Client Server
 The client server model is the distributed computing
architecture used by most Internet services, generally
classifying hosts on the Internet as clients and servers
 Client programs are used to access Internet services provided
by host computers running server programs that provide the
information or service needed
 For example web browsers are client programs used to access
information hosted by web servers

What are the ways to find information on
the Internet?
Net surfing –involves scanning pages and
clicking on links randomly
Using a URL – quickest way to find
information on the Internet but you must
know where it is located
Use search tools and services – can assist
you in locating the information you need
among the vast amount of information
available on the Net

What are the Internet search tools and
services?
Search engines
Subject directories
Invisible Web
Meta-search engines
Specialized search engines
Other search tools

services?
Search engines
Websites that uses “bots” or “spiders” that
periodically search the World Wide Web and
automatically index and store the information
in their database
Examples
◦ Google - http://www.google.com
◦ Alltheweb - http://www.alltheweb.com
◦ Altavista - http://www.altavista.com

services?
Subject directories
Listings and directories of web page files
that have been assembled manually,
selected and evaluated by humans
Examples
◦ Yahoo - http://www.yahoo.com
◦ Librarian’s Index – http://www.lii.org
◦ LookSmart - http://www.looksmart.com

services?
Invisible Web
Web pages that cannot be ordinarily reached through
search engines or subject directories
Examples
◦ Langenberg – http://www.langenberg.com
◦ Complete Planet - http://www.completeplanet.com
◦ Direct Search - http://gwis2.circ.gwu.edu/~gprice/direct.htm

services?
Meta-search engines
Send your search query to several search
engines simultaneously and give you a
consolidated report of their findings
Examples
◦ Metacrawler – http://www.metacrawler.com
◦ Dogpile – http://www.dogpile.com
◦ ProFusion – http://www.profusion.com

services?
Specialized search engines
Search engines dedicated to indexing web
pages on specific topics
Examples
◦ Locate mailing lists and newsgroups
 The Lizt – http://www.liszt.com
 Mailbase – http://www.mailbase.ac.uk
 Dejanews – http://www.dejanews.com
 Google groups - http://groups.google.com/

services?
Other search tools and services
FTP archives - locate files on anonymous
FTP sites
◦ Ex. - ArchiePlex -http://archie.emnet.co.uk/form.html
Web and e-mail people finder
◦ Ex. – Four11 – http://people.yahoo.com
Multimedia search
◦ Ex. - Webseek - http://www.ctr.columbia.edu/webseek/

services?
Other search tools and services
Virtual Reference Libraries – online dictionaries,
indexes, etc.
◦ Ex. Research-it – http://www.iTools.com/research-it
Virtual Reference Desks – online reference services
◦ Ex – AskA+Locator - http://www.vrd.org/locator/subject.shtml

How to use the Internet tools and
services?
Most if not all of the Internet tools and services
can be used through the World Wide Web
To be able to use the search tools on the Web to
find information resources on the Net one must
first know how to use a browser
Features and functions of available search tools
and services vary accordingly, one must be
familiar with at least two or more search tools to
become effective in finding information

services?
Browsers
Programs used to access the World Wide Web
Allows a user to access resources on a server
Displays the contents of the web in multimedia
format
Examples of browsers
◦ Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Google
Chrome

services?
Using a Browser
You need to be familiar with the features of your web
browser and know how to use it
◦ enter a URL in the location or address bar to visit a particular
web site
◦ open, resize, close a browser window
◦ locate and use the navigation tools on your browser ie., back,
reload/refresh, home, print
◦ identify and use hyperlinks to get around the web
◦ download documents and files
◦ use plug-ins like Adobe Acrobat or Macromedia Shockwave

services?
Generally there are two ways of using search
tools and services
◦ Browsing – usually applied to directories
where subjects are arranged hierarchically
◦ Keywords search – search box is provided
for entering keywords to search the database
 Simple search – search on the keywords
 Advanced search – search can be refined using
various techniques
services?
Browsing subject directories
 From the home page you start with a broad subject
area and follow the links to more specific areas until
you reach the subject you wish to explore, then you
click on one of the displayed results to go to the
selected page (document)

services?
Simple keywords search
Type keywords on the search box , press
Enter on the keyboard and then select
from the results

services?
Advanced search
Most search engines allow you to refine
your search

services?
Meta-search engines, invisible web,
specialized search engines and other
search tools and services use the same
basic principles in locating your
information need
Ideally combinations of both browsing
and keyword searching (simple and
advanced) will yield more accurate results

services?
Each Internet tool and service provides
help files that can guide you in utilizing it
more effectively

How to find information on the Internet?
Analyze your topic

Choose the search tool you need
Learn how to use the search tools
Formulate your search strategy
Search with a question in mind

Analyze your topic

What are you searching? for what purpose?
What type of information do you want?
The purpose is to determine what terms to use in your
search and what search tool features you need to
search successfully

Choose the search tool you need
Search tools find documents matching your
information need
Every search tool is different. They vary in features
and size/comprehensiveness
The most important features in selecting a search tool
are those which allow you to refine or focus your
search when you need to

Learn how to use the search tools
Being familiar with most of the major search tools
and their capabilities allows you to zero in on your
search
Learn how to use Boolean logic, phrase searching,
truncation, field searching, etc.
Spend time reading the Help files to know its features
and capabilities

Formulate your search strategy
Formulating your search strategy beforehand allows
you to search for information systematically
It also saves you a lot of time and money if you are
paying for Internet access by the minute
Your search strategy should be based on your
information need

Search with a question in mind
How am I going to use this?
Do I have enough or too much information?
Scan the content of the material to find out if it has
anything of value
Evaluate the website for accuracy and authority

Simple search strategy
pick your site know how to use the

learn to use the search refining techniques
use multiple search engines
tools
use meta-search engines
choose your words
use specialized search
carefully
engines
vary your spelling
reuse your search
know how to widen
your search

Tips in finding information on the Internet

Learn the features and functions of your browser
If you know the URL go directly to it
Always check for typing errors
Define the topic in terms of concepts
Express each concept using keywords multiple
keywords or phrases
Search multiple terms or exact phrase and not single
words

Tips in finding information on the Internet

Read the help screens and search tips
Utilize two or more search tools
Use any advanced features of the search engine
Use services which index quality sites
Evaluate the results
Download the information
Cite your source properly

How to find information on the
Internet?
Pitfalls Solutions
endless links that leads to stop / try another search
getting lost try it another time /site;

data traffic takes eternity change ISP
refine or vary your
to download
search
too many; too few; many
search with a more
irrelevant sites specific question in
information overload mind

How to find information on the
Internet?
To effectively find information we must:
Clearly define what we are looking for
Become familiar with the information resources and
different search tools available via the Internet
Learn how to use at least one or two of the search
tools effectively
Create and try your own search strategy
Evaluate retrieved information and cite the source
properly

Web 2.0
The term Web 2.0 is associated with web
applications that facilitate participatory
information sharing, interoperability, user-
centered design, and collaboration on the
World Wide Web.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_2.0

A Web 2.0 site allows users to interact and
collaborate with each other in a social media
dialogue as creators of user-generated content
in a virtual community, in contrast to websites
where users are limited to the passive viewing
of content that was created for them.
Examples : social networking sites, blogs,
wikis, video sharing sites, hosted services,
web applications

Social Networking Sites
Facebook (www.facebook.com)
Twitter (http://twitter.com)

Google Calendar is a contact and time-
management web application offered by Google.

Horde groupware is an open source web
application.

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INTRODUCTION TO

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• Sharing information — i.e. data communication

• Do you prefer these?

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• Centralize administration and support

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◦ Unguided ― wireless transmission, e.g. radio,

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• Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• Where peer-to-peer network is appropriate:

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• Disadvantages of client/server networks

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A group of inter-related protocols that are

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 Based on a ring topology; but can use a star topology;

 Based on client/server model of network computing;

 Uses client/server model of network computing;

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