Durability-Physical and Chemical Causes: MS Lecture 6

Durability-Physical and Chemical Causes
MS Lecture 6
Prof. Dr. M.U.K Afridi

0334-5278537
1 [email protected]
Classification of the Causes of Concrete
Deterioration
There are two types of processes involved in the Concrete
Deterioration:
i. Physical Causes
ii. Chemical Causes
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Abraison
• Hardened cement paste does not possess a high resistance to attrition or
wearing.
• Service life of concrete can be shortened under conditions of repeated

attrition or wearing cycles, especially when the cement paste in concrete is
of high porosity or low strength, and is inadequately protected by an
aggregate which itself lacks wear resistance.
• For obtaining abrasion resistance concrete surfaces, ACI Committee 201

recommends that the compressive strength of concrete should not be less
than 4000 psi (28 MPa).
• Suitable strength may be attained by low water-cement ratio, proper grading

of fine and coarse aggregate (limit the maximum size to 25 mm), lowest
consistency (e.g., 75 mm max. slump) needed for proper placing and
consolidation, and a minimum air content consistent with exposure
conditions.
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Abraison Process
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Erosion
• When a fluid containing suspended solid particles is in contact with
concrete, the impinging, sliding, or rolling action of particles will cause
surface wear.
• The rate of surface erosion depends on the porosity or the strength of

concrete, and on the amount, size, shape, density, hardness, and
velocity of the moving particles.
• If the quantity and size of solids is small, such as, silt in an irrigation
canal, the erosion loss will be negligible at bottom velocities up to 1.8
m/s (velocity at or above which a given particle can be transported).
• When severe erosion or abrasion conditions exist, it is recommended

that, in addition to the use of hard aggregates, the concrete should be
proportioned to develop at least 41 MPa compressive strength at 28
days and adequately cured before exposure to the aggressive
environment. ACT Committee 201 recommends at least 7 days of
continuous moist curing after the finishing
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of concrete.
Erosion in Concrete
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Abraison & Erosion
• Where additional measures for improving the durability of concrete to
abrasion or erosion are needed, it is worth remembering that the process
of physical attrition of concrete occurs at the surface; therefore,
particular attention should be paid to ensure that, at least, the concrete
at the surface is of high quality.
• To reduce the formation of a weak urface, called laitance (the term is

used for a layer of fine particles, removed from the cement paste and
aggregate), it is recommended to delay the floating and trowelling
operations until the concrete has lost its surface bleed water.
• Heavy-duty industrial floors or pavements may be designed to have a 25-

to 75-mm-thick topping, consisting of a low water-cement ratio concrete
mixture and a hard aggregate of 12.5 mm maximum size.
• Because of their very low water-cement ratio, concrete toppings

containing admixtures or superplasticizing admixtures are becoming
increasingly popular for use against abrasion or erosion.
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Abraison & Erosion
• Mineral admixtures, such as condensed silica fume, are also being used to
obtain high strength and impermeability.
• Besides enabling hardened concrete to become less permeable after

moist curing, fresh concrete mixtures containing mineral admixtures are
less prone to bleeding.
• Resistance to deterioration by permeating fluids and reduction in dusting

due to attrition can also be achieved by the application of surface-
hardening solutions to well cured new floors or abraded old floors.
• The solutions most commonly used for this purpose are magnesium and
zinc fluosilicate, or sodium silicate, which react with calcium hydroxide
present in the Portland cement paste to form insoluble reaction products,
thus sealing the capillary pores at or near the surface.
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Cavitation
• While good-quality concrete shows excellent resistance to steady flow of clear
water, nonlinear flow at velocities exceeding 12 m/s (7 m/s in closed conduits)
may cause severe damage to concrete through cavitation.
• In flowing water, vapor bubbles form when the local absolute pressure at a given
point is reduced to ambient vapor pressure of water corresponding to the ambient
temperature. As the vapor bubbles flowing downstream with water enter a region
of high pressure, they implode with great impact because of the entry of high-
velocity water into the previously vapor-occupied space, causing severe local
shock or pressure waves resulting in pitting.
• Therefore, the concrete surface affected by cavitation is irregular or pitted, in

contrast to the smoothly worn surface by erosion from suspended solids.
• Also, in contrast to erosion or abrasion, a strong concrete may not necessarily be

effective in preventing cavitation damage. The best solution lies in removal of the
causes of cavitation, such as surface misalignments or abrupt changes of slope. In
1984, extensive repairs were needed for the concrete lining of a tunnel of the
Glen Canyon Dam ; the damage was caused by cavitation attributable to surface
irregularities in the lining. 12
Cavitation Process
The compression of the vapor bubbles produces a small shock wave
that impacts the impeller surface and pits away the surface creating
over time large eroded areas and subsequent failure.
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Cavitation Process
Cavitation damage to the concrete wall of the 15.2m diameter Arizona

spillway at the Hoover Dam. The hole is 35m long, 9m wide and 13.7m
deep.
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Cavitation Process
Cavitation, a process well-studied
by engineers and geologists
today, is known to be quite
capable of eroding huge volumes
of rock and concrete quickly.
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Crystallization of Salts in the Pores
• Under certain environmental conditions, for example, when one side of a retaining
wall or slab of a permeable solid is in contact with a salt solution and the other
sides are subject to loss of moisture by evaporation, the material can deteriorate
by stresses caused by crystallization of salts in the pores.
• A number of salts are known to cause cracking and spalling type of damage to rocks
and stone monuments. This phenomenon was attributed to the large pressures
produced by crystallization of salts from their supersaturated solutions.
• The extent of damage, due to crystallization of salts into the pores, depends on
the site of the salt crystallization, which is determined by a dynamic balance
between the rate of evaporation of water from the exposed surface of the material
and the rate of supply of the salt solution to that site.
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Flaking or Spalling of Concrete due to Salt
Crystallization in Pores
• When the rate of evaporation is lower than the rate of supply of

water from inside the masonry, the salt crystallization takes place on
the external surface, without causing any damage.
• Only when the rate of migration of the salt solution through the
interconnected pores of the material is slower than the rate of
replenishment, the drying zone occurs substantially beneath the
surface. Salt crystallization under such conditions may result in
sufficient expansion to cause flaking or spalling.
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Frost Action
• Frost action (freezing and thawing cycles), is one of the

major problems of deterioration of hardened concrete in
colder regions and is responsible for heavy expenditures for
the repair and replacement of structures.
• This frost action can be related to the complex

microstructure of the material; however, the deleterious
effect depends not only on characteristics of the concrete
but also on the specific environmental conditions. Thus a
concrete that is frost resistant under given freeze-thaw
conditions can be destroyed under a different set of
conditions.
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Frost Action
• Frost damage in concrete can take several forms
• The most common is cracking and spalling of concrete

caused by progressive expansion of the cement paste matrix
from repeated freezing and thawing cycles. Concrete slabs
exposed to freezing and thawing cycles in the presence of
moisture and deicing salts are susceptible to scaling (i.e.,
the finished surface flakes or peels off).
• Also some coarse aggregates in concrete slabs are known to

cause cracking, usually parallel to joints and edges, which
eventually acquires a pattern resembling a large capital
letter D (cracks curving around two of the four corners of
the slab). This type of cracking is described by the term D-
cracking. Cold climates, damage to concrete pavements,
retaining walls, bridge decks, 19
and railings, etc.
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Explanation of Fig.5-6
(a)D-cracking in highway and airfield pavement refers to a D-shaped pattern

of closely spaced cracks which occur parallel to longitudinal transverse
joints. This type of cracking is associated with coarse aggregates which
contain a proportionately greater pore volume in the narrow pore size
range (0.1 to I um).
(b)Progressive expansion of unprotected (nonair-entrained) cement paste by

repeated freeze-thaw cycles leads to deterioration of concrete by cracking
and spalling. Many Corps of Engineers lock walls which were built prior to
the use of air entrainment in concrete suffer from freezing and thawing
deterioration in moist environment. Standard operating procedures
normally require the water in the locks to remain at upper pool level
during the winter so that the concrete is protected from free-thaw cycles.
All hydraulic projects of the Corps built since 1940s have been constructed
with air-entrained concrete.
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Explanation of Fig.5-6
(c) Concrete scaling or flaking of the finished surface from freezing and
thawing generally starts as localized small patches which later on may
merge and extend to expose large areas.
Light scaling does not expose the coarse aggregate. Moderate scaling
exposes the coarse aggregate and may involve loss of up to 3 to 9 mm
of the surface mortar In severe scaling, more surface has been lost and
the aggregate is clearly exposed and stands out. Most scaling is caused
by (i) inadequate air entrainment, (ii) application of calcium and
sodium chloride deicing salts, (iii) performing finishing operations while
bleed water is still on the surface, and (iv) insufficient curing before
exposure of the concrete to frost action in the presence of moisture
and deicing salts.
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*Air-entraining admixtures are used to purposely introduce
and stabilize microscopic air bubbles in concrete.
*Air entrainment will dramatically improve the durability of

concrete exposed to cycles of freezing and thawing. (Fig.
6-2).
*Air Entraining
Admixtures
Fig. 6-2. Frost damage (crumbling) at joints of a pavement
(top), frost induced cracking near joints (bottom), and
enlarged view of cracks (inset). (61621, 67834, 67835)
* Entrained air greatly improves concrete’s resistance to
surface scaling caused by chemical deicers (Fig. 6-3).
*Furthermore, the workability of fresh concrete is

improved significantly, and segregation and bleeding are
reduced or eliminated.
* Air-entrained concrete contains minute air bubbles
that are distributed uniformly throughout the cement
paste.
* Entrained air can be produced in concrete by use of

an air-entraining cement, by introduction of an air entraining
admixture, or by a combination of both methods.
* An air-entraining cement is a Portland cement with

an air-entraining addition interground with the clinker
during manufacture.
* An air-entraining admixture, on the

other hand, is added directly to the concrete materials
either before or during mixing.
*Air-Entraining
Admixtures
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Figure 5-7 Response of saturated cement
paste to freezing and thawing with and
without entrained air.
According to Powers, a saturated cement

paste containing no entrained air expands
on freezing due to the generation of
hydraulic pressure (a) With increasing air
entrainment, the tendency to expand
decreases because the entrained air voids
provide escape boundaries for the hydraulic
pressure [(b), (c), and (d)]. (e) Polished
section of air- entrained concrete as seen
through a microscope.
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Fig.5-8c
In Fig. 5-8c, ice crystals can be seen forming inside an air void, providing
an important open space for the crystals to develop. Had these crystals
formed in the cement paste, the matrix would have expanded, leading to
cracking and loss of stiffness.
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LDA PLAZA FIRE 09 MAY 2013
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* Reinforcement in concrete remains passive
against corrosion, if pH of Concrete is 12.5 or
over as no galvanic cells are produced on
reinforcement.
* As pH is down from12.5,due to any reason e.g.
carbonation, or chloride ion penetration,
galvanic cells are produced on reinforcement,
mass increases due to formation of rust. This
generates pressure in the concrete leading to
spalling and damaging the concrete.
* Corrosion of Reinforcement
in Concrete
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Durability-Physical and Chemical Causes

Prof. Dr. M.U.K Afridi

• Service life of concrete can be shortened under conditions of repeated

• For obtaining abrasion resistance concrete surfaces, ACI Committee 201

• Suitable strength may be attained by low water-cement ratio, proper grading

• The rate of surface erosion depends on the porosity or the strength of

• When severe erosion or abrasion conditions exist, it is recommended

• To reduce the formation of a weak urface, called laitance (the term is

• Heavy-duty industrial floors or pavements may be designed to have a 25-

• Because of their very low water-cement ratio, concrete toppings

• Besides enabling hardened concrete to become less permeable after

• Resistance to deterioration by permeating fluids and reduction in dusting

• Therefore, the concrete surface affected by cavitation is irregular or pitted, in

• Also, in contrast to erosion or abrasion, a strong concrete may not necessarily be

Cavitation damage to the concrete wall of the 15.2m diameter Arizona

• When the rate of evaporation is lower than the rate of supply of

• Frost action (freezing and thawing cycles), is one of the

• This frost action can be related to the complex

• The most common is cracking and spalling of concrete

• Also some coarse aggregates in concrete slabs are known to

(a)D-cracking in highway and airfield pavement refers to a D-shaped pattern

(b)Progressive expansion of unprotected (nonair-entrained) cement paste by

*Air entrainment will dramatically improve the durability of

*Furthermore, the workability of fresh concrete is

* Entrained air can be produced in concrete by use of

* An air-entraining cement is a Portland cement with

* An air-entraining admixture, on the

According to Powers, a saturated cement

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