CONCRETE PAVEMENT

CONCRETE PAVEMENT
CHARACTERISTICS & BEHAVIOR
The behavior of concrete pavement that is expose
to loading and environmental effect entirely
depends upon the:

• Quality of concrete
• Underlying sub-grade
• Base course
Concrete
• strong in resisting compression load acting on it,
but considerably weak in resisting tensile stress.
• also expand and contract due to temperature
changes. It expands when wet and contracts
when dried.
• after pouring, concrete shrinks as the mortar
hardens and the cement hydrates
• concrete pavement changes in length with time
of day for being exposed to different elements of
weather changes
CONCRETE PAVEMENT DESIGN ASSUMES THE
FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS:
1. That the pavement slab was designed as plain concrete
beams.
2. That, transverse cracks on the concrete pavement
cannot be avoided. The designer however, presumes
that the pavement cracks could be controlled, by
providing reinforcement to the slab joints with the
following assumptions.
a.) With reinforcement, cracks on the slab will be confined
to a weekend plain joints spaced at 4.50 to 6.00 meters
distance.
b.) Vertical offsetting across the narrow cracks will be
prevented by aggregate interlock, or by dowel bars.
c.) With simply reinforced slab, cracks will only appear at
weakened plane joints spaced at 12-20 meters interval.
Hair cracks that can be held tightly by the steel between
joints.
d.) With continuous reinforcement, transverse
joints omitted. Hair cracks are checked by the
steel and developed at close intervals.
e.) Faulting is countered by aggregate interlock
and steel bars.
3. The longitudinal cracks on the pavement slab
more than one lane wide are inevitable.
4. Pavement slab is supported by foundation that
deflects when loaded but recover when the load
is removed, assuming that the foundation
materials are elastic or like a dense liquid.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Deterioration of concrete pavement is due
to stress brought about by 1 rad, moisture and
temperature. Distress of concrete is generally
grouped into the following categories:
• Distortion
• Cracking
• Disintegration
• Distortion is a vertical displacement of concrete
slab at the joint of the cracks. Distortion is due to
failure or weakness of concrete joints.

• Faulting is the result of pumping tremendous

force or load that developed under the pavement.
For faulting to occur, there must be free water on
the top of the base course and pavement deflection
across the joint due to heavy axle loads.
Causes of faulting :
a. Loss of slab support
b. Erosion of sub base

Cracking can take many forms in concrete pavement that

could be the result from; applied load, temperature or
moisture changes
The most common type of cracks :

a. Corner cracks associated with excessive corner

deflection.
b. Transverse cracks associated with mixture or
temperature stress, or poor construction
methods.
 • Disintegration appears in the form of durability
cracking, scaling or spalling, as the result of mix design
or construction related problems like:
a. Durability cracking. Result from freezethaw action
b. Scaling. A network of shallow fine hairline cracks which
extend through the upper surface of the concrete. This is
the result from deicing salts, improper construction,
freeze-thaw cycle, or steel reinforcement too closed to
the surface
c. Spalling is the breaking or chipping of the joint edges. It
is the result from excessive stresses at joint, weak
concrete, poorly designed or constructed joints
SCALING SPALLING
TRANSVERSE EXPANSION JOINTS
• Expansion Joints provide space allowance for
the lengthening of slab due to expansion.
Because of the many buckling upward of
concrete pavement, Engineers have come up
with a conclusion that these blowups serves as
conclusive evidence that expansion joint is
necessary.
LONGITUDINAL JOINTS
• Longitudinal joints are provided between adjacent
traffic lanes. It is considered as hinges to provide
edge support, but allows rotation between the slabs.
By this joint, flexural stresses that might cause
irregular cracks along the length of the road are
relieved or neutralized. Longitudinal joints cannot
be considered as a major problem under the
following assumptions:
1. That there is no big load transfer across it.
2. That, the expansion and contraction movement
developed across the pavement width is very small.
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
• If concrete pouring will be interrupted for quite
some time that cold joint will be inevitable, the
practice is to provide a transverse construction
joints. Deformed tie bars are used to hold the
joint tightly closed together. However, if the
construction joint replaces a contraction joint,
the use of dowels is the alternative.
• Construction joints and cracks should be cleaned
and sealed to prevent infiltration of water to the
sub-grade and to keep dirt out of the joints.
Materials for such purpose includes harder paving
and air blown asphalt sometimes mixed with
mineral filler, rubber asphalt, and various rubber
compounds. They are poured hot and stiff, then
cooled, and others are placed cold. There are some
pre-formed sealant made of strips of extruded
neoprene compressed for insertion into the groove
joints, the sealant will expand and fill the space
completely.
REINFORCEMENT OF JOINTS
• Steel reinforcement for concrete pavement joints
is specified in the design to prevent the widening
of cracks produced by shrinkage or thermal
contraction.
• The reinforcement holds the fractured faces on rigid
contacts preserving the aggregate interlock and the
intrusion of dirt or water. These reinforcing bars,
however, is not intended to resist flexural stress
being produced by loads or curling.

• The reinforcing steel bars are mounted in one layer

along the mid-depth of the slab. The formula used in
designing this reinforcement for concrete slab joint
is;
𝑨𝒔 = 𝑳𝒇𝑾/𝟐𝑺
Where:
As = Area of steel cross section per foot of slab.
L = Length of slab between joints in feet.
f = Coefficient of friction between the slab and the
sub-grade called the coefficient of sub-grade
resistance ranging from1 to 2 with 1.5 recommended
by AASHTO Interim Guide.
S = Working stress in the reinforcing steel in pounds
per sq. in. AASHTO Interim Guide suggested
working stress from 30,000 to 45,000 psi
depending upon the type and grade of steel.
Wielded fabrics are also used as reinforcements
for concrete pavement made from cold drawn
steel wired having the following properties:
Minimum allowed tensile strength:
80,000 psi
Yield Strength:
70,000 psi
Reinforcing bars of billet, rail or axle steel yield
strength among the from:
40,000 to 75,000 psi.
SUB-GRADE & SUB-BASE FOR
CONCRETE PAVEMENT
SUB GRADE
• the natural ground grade and compacted on
which the pavement is built.
Preparation of the sub-grade includes:
▪ Compacting soils at moisture contents and densities that will
ensure uniform and stable pavement support.

• Whenever possible, setting gradelines high enough and making

side ditches deep enough to increase the distance between water
table and the pavement.

• Crosshauling and mixing of soils to achieve uniform conditions in

areas where there are abrupt horizontal changes in soil type.

• Using selective grading in cut and fill areas to place the better
soils nearer to he top of the final grade elevation.

• Improving extremely poor soils by treatment with cement or lime,

or importing better soils, whichever is more economical.
SUB BASE
• defined as the layer of material that lies
immediately below the concrete pavement.
When the use of a sub-base is considered
appropriate, the best results are obtained by:

1. Selecting sub-base materials that meet minimum

requirements for preventing mudpumping of sub-grade
soils.

2. Specifying gradation controls that will ensure a

reasonably constant sub-base gradation for individual
projects.

3. Specifying a minimum sub-base depth of 4 in.

4. Specifying a minimum density for untreated sub-bases

of 105 percent of AASHTO T99 for heavily travelled
projects.
5. Specifying a cement-treated or lean concrete sub-base
that provides a strong and uniform support for the
pavements and joints; provides an all-weather working
platform; and contributes a smoother pavements by
giving firm support to the forms or paver during
construction.

6. Specifying a permeable sub-base for pavements carrying

high volumes of heavy trucks for which past experience
indicates the potential for pavement faulting and
pumping.
CONCRETE PROPORTIONS AND MIXTURES
CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
The fundamental rule to obtain good concrete is the
proper selection of cement aggregate and water thus:

1. Type 1 or II cement is specified for concrete pavement

2. Water for concrete must be clean, free from acids, alkali and oil. Water
that is suited for drinking purposes is acceptable for mixing cement
except water containing large amount of sulfate.
3. If concrete is to be strong, sound and durable, the aggregate must have
similar properties.
4. The mineral aggregate of concrete is about 75% of the volume or about
80% of the weight of normal pavement
5. The maximum size of coarse aggregate is 2 inches. The use of larger
aggregates, according to some experienced highway engineers,
increases its length and durability. With larger aggregate, less water is
needed thereby, increasing the ratio of cement to water. Under the
cement-ratio principle, concrete is stronger when water content is less.
MIXTURE
• A substance added in mixing to change the
characteristic of concrete mixture.
• There are varieties of admixtures available – the
air entraining admixture, which is very
common. Others, like water reducer, retarder,
accelerator, Pozzolan ad plasticizer are also used
AIR ENTRAINMENT
The entrapment of air in the concrete mixture in
the form of evenly distributed small bubbles. It
is used to increase the concrete resistance to
surface scaling caused by increase the concrete
resistance to surface scaling caused by deicing
with calcium or sodium chloride. Another
working advantage of air entrainment is
improving its workability and reduces bleeding
in fresh concrete.
The effectiveness of air entrainment is to
increase the concrete durability that is
influenced by:

1. Percentage of air present in the mixture.

2. Grading of aggregates.
3. Size and distribution of air bubbles.
CURING OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT

• Curing is the process where the concrete

surfaces are kept wet for a certain period after
placing of concrete so as to promote the
hardening of cement. It consists of a control of
temperature and of the moisture movement
from and into the concrete.
CURING METHODS AND MATERIAL
1. Methods that maintain the presence of mixing
water in the concrete during hardening period.

▪ Ponding or immersion - it is effective for

maintaining a uniform temperature in the
concrete.
▪ Spraying or fogging - excellent methods of
curing when the ambient temperature is well
above freezing and the humidity is low.
▪ Saturated wet coverings - Fabric coverings
saturated with water, such as burlap, cotton
mats, rugs, or other moisture-retaining
fabrics, are commonly used for curing.
2. Methods that reduce the loss of mixing water from
the surface of the concrete.
• covering the concrete with impervious paper or
plastic sheets - Polyethylene film is a lightweight,
effective moisture retarder and is easily applied to
complex as well as simple shapes.
• applying membrane-forming curing compounds-
Consists of waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and
other materials can be used to retard or reduce
evaporation of moisture from concrete.
Reasons to Cure Concrete

• Concrete strength gain

• Improved durability of concrete
• Improved microstructure
Duration of Curing

• The duration of curing of concrete depends on

the grade & type of cement, mix proportion,
desired concrete strength, shape and size of the
concrete member and environmental & exposure
conditions. The duration may vary from few
days to a month.
Importance of Curing

• Curing of concrete must begin as soon as

possible after placement & finishing and must
continue for a reasonable period of time as per
the relevant standards, for the concrete to
achieve its desired strength and durability.
Uniform temperature should also be maintained
throughout the concrete depth to avoid thermal
shrinkage cracks. Also protective measures to
control moisture loss from the concrete surface
are essential to prevent plastic shrinkage cracks.
DPWH SPECIFICATIONS ON CONCRETE
PAVEMENT
• Concrete pavement is categorized under item 311
of DPWH standard specifications, which
provides that:
“ T his item shall consist of Portland cement
Concrete pavement with or without
reinforcement, constructed on the prepared
base in accordance with the plans and
specifications.“
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
• PORTLAND CEMENT - shall conform to the
applicable requirements of Item 0-700,
hydraulic cement. Only type 1 or the normal or
common Portland cement should be used.

Different brands or the same brands from

different mills shall not be mixed nor shall they
be used alternately unless approved by the
supervising engineer.
• FINE AGGREGATE
1. Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, stone
screening or other inert materials with similar
characteristics or combination thereof, having hard,
strong and durable particles. It shall be free from
injurious amounts of organic impurities.
2. Fine aggregates from different sources of supply
should not be mixed or stored in the same pile nor
used alternately.
3. Fine aggregates should not contain more than 3
mass percent of materials passing the 0.075mm
(No. 200) sieve by washing nor more than one mass
percent each of clay lumps or shale.
4. The use of beach sand will not be allowed without the
approval of the supervising engineer.

5. If the fine aggregate is subjected to 5 cycles of the

sodium sulfate soundness test, the weighed loss should
not exceed 10 mass percent.

6. If fine aggregate is subjected to test for organic

impurities and a color darker than the standard is
produced, it should be rejected. However, when tested
for the effect of organic impurities on the strength of
mortar by AASHTO T-71, the fine aggregate may be used
if the relative strength at 7 and 28 days is not less than
95 mass percent.
• COARSE AGGREGATE
• 1. Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed
stone, gravel, blast furnace slag, or other
approved inert materials of similar character or
combination thereof, having hard, strong
durable pieces, free from any adherent coatings
• 2. Coarse aggregate should contain not more
than one mass percent of material passing the
0.075mm (No. 200) sieve nor more than 0.25
mass percent of clay lumps, not more than 3.5
mass percent of soft fragments.
• 3. If the coarse aggregate was subjected to 5 cycles of
the sodium sulfate soundness test, the lost weight
should not exceed 12 mass percent. It should have a
mass percent of wear not exceeding 40 when tested
by AASHTO T-96.
• 4. If slag is used, its density should not be less than
1120 kilogram per cubic meter. The gradation of the
coarse aggregate should conform to Table 8-5. Only
one grading specification should be used from any
one source.
• WATER
Water to be used in concrete mixing or curing or
other designated applications should be clean
and free from oil, salt, acid, alkali, grass or other
substances injurious to the finished product.
Drinking water if used needs to be tested.
• REINFORCING STEEL
 The specifications state that: dowels and tie bars to be used in
concrete pavement shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M-31 or M-42 except that rail steel shall not be used
for tie bars to be bended and re-straightened during
construction. Specifications further provide that:
1. Tie bars shall be deformed bars.
2. Dowels shall be plain round bars delivered to the site with one
half of each dowel length painted with one coat of approved
lead or tar paint.
3. The sleeves of dowels shall be metal of approved design to
cover 50mm plus or minus 5mm of the dowels, with a
closed end, with a suitable stop to hold the end of the sleeve
at least 25mm from the end of the dowel.
4. Sleeve shall be of such design that they do not collapse during
construction.
• JOINT FILLERS
Joint fillers should be mixed asphalt and mineral
or rubber filler. The pre-formed joint fillers are
punched to admit the dowels. Filler for each
joint should be furnished in a single place for the
full depth and width of the joint.
PREPARATION OF GRADE
• After the base or sub-grade have been placed
and compacted to the required density, the areas
that will support the paving machine and the
grade on which the pavement is to be
constructed should be trimmed to the proper
elevation by means of a properly designed
machine extending the work at least 60 cm
beyond each edge of the proposed concrete
pavement.
• If loss of density results from the trimming
operations, it should be restored by additional
compaction before concrete is placed. If any
traffic is allowed to use the prepared sub-grade
or the surface, it should be checked and
corrected immediately ahead of the placing of
concrete. The sub-grade or base should be
uniformly moistened when the concrete is
placed.
Setting of Forms
1. Base Support – The foundation under the
forms should be hard and true to grade, so that
the form when set will be firmly in contact with
its whole length at the specified grade. Any
roadbed, which is below the established grade,
should be filled with approved granular
materials to grade in lifts of three centimeters
or less, and thoroughly re-rolled or tamped.
Imperfections or variations above the grade
should be corrected by tamping or by cutting
as necessary.
• 2. Grading and Alignment – form shall be set
sufficiently advance from the point where the
concrete is being placed. After setting to correct
grade, the base is thoroughly tamped,
mechanically or by hand, at both edge of the
form base inside and outside. The forms should
not deviate from the true line by more than one
centimeter at any point.
• 3. Grading and Alignment – the alignment
and grade elevation of the forms should be
checked and corrections be made immediately
before the placing of concrete. Prior to the
placing of concrete, the crown and elevation are
verified by holding an approved template in a
vertical position moving backward and forward
on the forms.
HANDLING, MEASURING AND BATCHING
OF MATERIALS
• The batching plant and equivalent layout must
provide a smooth and flow of continuous supply
and transport of materials to the work.
Stockpiles are built up in layers of not more than
one meter in thickness with each layer
completely in place before beginning the next
that should not be allowed to “cone” down over
the next lower layer.
• All washed aggregates and aggregate produced
or handled by hydraulic methods are stockpiled
or binned for draining at least twelve hours
before being batched.
• The mixer should be charged without loss of
cement and batched material should be charged
without loss of cement and should be weighed
for each material required within a tolerance of
1% for cement and 2% for aggregates. Water may
be measured by volume or by weight and the
accuracy of measuring water shall be within a
range of x > 1% error.
PLACING OR DEPOSITING OF CONCRETE
• Concrete is deposited in such a manner
requiring minimal re-handling. Unless truck
mixers or non-agitating hauling equipment are
equipped with a means to discharge concrete
without segregation of the materials, the
concrete should be unloaded inside the form in a
manner to prevent segregation of the particles.
1.Placing of concrete between transverse joints
without the use of intermediate bulkheads.
Necessary hand spreading shall be done with
shovels, not rakes. Workers are not allowed to
walk on.

2.Where concrete is to be placed adjoining a

previously constructed lane, and mechanical
equipment will be operated upon the existing lane,
that previously constructed lane must have attained
the strength for 14 day concrete. If finishing
equipment is carried on the existing lane paving in
adjoining lanes may be permitted only after 3 days.
3. Vibrators should not be allowed to come in contact
with a joint assembly, grade or side form. In no case
it be operated longer than 15 seconds in any one
location.

4. Concrete should be deposited as near as possible to

the expansion and contraction joints without
disturbing them, but should not be dumped from
the discharge bucket of hopper into a joint assembly
unless the hopper is well centered on the joint
assembly.
REMOVAL OF FORMS
Forms for concrete pavement should remain in place
undisturbed within 24 hours after pouring. The
removal could be done as follows:
• 1. Crowbars are used in removing forms, pulling out
nails and pins but care should be exercised not to
break the pavement edges.
• 2. In case a portion of the concrete slab is spelled off,
it should be repaired immediately with fresh mortar
mixture of 1:2.
• 3. Major honeycombed area will be considered as
defective work, to be removed and replaced.