REPAIR AND REHABITATIONS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURE – SUMMER 2023

(Answer key)

Que 1. a) What Are The Different Physical Processes Of Deterioration Explain Any One.
Ans:- following are the different physical processes of deterioration :
• Freezing and thawing
• Abrasion of concrete
• Carbonation of concrete
• Erosion of concrete
• Pitting of concrete
• Chloride ingress
• Concrete corrosion
• Alkali–aggregate reaction
• Sulphate attack
• Acid attack
• Effect of temperature
• Cracks in Concrete

Erosion of concrete :-
i. Erosion is one form of wearing of concrete that is observed in contact with flowing water.
ii. The water body that results erosion may carry solid particles which leads to serious erosion
to concrete.
iii. Erosion is a mechanical damage of concrete which is frequently associated with corrosion.
iv. Marine concrete is the ideal example of such damage.
v. With this corrosion effects, erosion is happened when mechanical damage to concrete is
occurred by the waves of water with gravel and sand carried by them.

Following are listing the factors that determine the degree of erosion:

• Quantity of the transported particles

• Shape of these particles
• Size of these particles
• Hardness of these particles
• Velocity of particle movement
• At last quality of concrete

b) what is carbonation and its effect on strength of concrete and how it can be avoided ?
Ans:- Carbonation is a chemical reaction in which carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air reacts with the
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) present in the hydrated cement paste of concrete, forming calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). This process reduces the alkalinity of the concrete and can have several effects
on its strength and durability.

Effects of Carbonation on Concrete Strength

Reduction In Alkanity:-Carbonation reduces the pH of the concrete, leading to a decrease in
alkalinity. The passivation of reinforcing steel in concrete is highly dependent on an alkaline
environment. As the pH drops, the protective oxide layer on the steel can break down, leading to
corrosion.

Corrosion Of Reinforcement:-Carbonation can accelerate the corrosion of steel reinforcement

within the concrete. This is a critical issue, as corrosion can lead to the expansion of the steel,
causing cracking and spalling of the concrete.

Reduction In Compressive Strength:-While the direct impact on compressive strength might not be
significant, carbonation can affect the microstructure of the hydrated cement paste, potentially
leading to a decrease in strength over time

Way to avoid carbonation in concreate

Use Low Permeability:- Increasing the density and reducing the permeability of concrete can help
slow down the penetration of carbon dioxide. This can be achieved by using high-quality concrete
mixes with low water-cement ratios and incorporating supplementary cementitious materials like fly
ash or silica fume.

Proper Curing Adequate curing of concrete is essential to ensure proper hydration of cement and
the development of a strong, durable structure. Proper curing helps reduce the porosity of concrete,
making it less susceptible to carbonation.

Protective Coating:- Applying sealers or coatings to the surface of concrete can create a barrier that
slows down the penetration of carbon dioxide. These coatings act as a protective layer, reducing the
exposure of the concrete to environmental factors.

Proper Design And Construction Practices:-Ensuring proper cover to reinforcement, using corrosion-
resistant reinforcing materials, and designing structures to minimize exposure to aggressive
environmental conditions can all contribute to preventing or slowing down carbonation.

OR

Que 2. a) Explain Sulphate Attack On Concreate And How It Can Be Prevented.

Ans:- Sulphate attack on concrete is a chemical breakdown mechanism where sulphate ions attack
components of the cement paste.

The compounds responsible for sulphate attack on concrete are water-soluble sulphate-containing
salts, such as alkali-earth (calcium, magnesium) and alkali (sodium, potassium) sulphates that are
capable of chemically reacting with components of concrete.

Forms of Sulphate Attack on Concrete

Sulphate attack on concrete might show itself in different forms depending on:

• The chemical form of the sulphate

• The atmospheric environment which the concrete is exposed to.

Following are the sources of sulphates which are responsible for sulphate attack

1. Internal Sources

This is more rare but, originates from such concrete-making materials as hydraulic cements, flyash,
aggregate, and admixtures.
 • Portland cement might be over-sulphated.
• presence of natural gypsum in the aggregate.
• Admixtures also can contain small amounts of sulphates.

2. External Sources

External sources of sulphate are more common and usually are a result of high-sulphate soils and
ground waters, or can be the result of atmospheric or industrial water pollution.

• Soil may contain excessive amounts of gypsum or other sulphate.

• Ground water be transported to the concrete foundations, retaining walls, and other
• underground structures.
• Industrial waste waters.

Preventive measures

• Adequate concrete thickness

• High cement content – with low tricalcium aluminate
• Low w/c ratio
• Proper compaction and curing
• Proper proportions of admixtures such as silica fume, fly ash and ground slag improve
resistance against sulfate attack.
• Reducing the amount of reactive elements such as calcium that is needed for expansive
sulphate reactions.

b) what are the different types of cracks in concrete and how it can be prevented.
Ans:- A Cracking is an entire or incomplete separation of concrete into two or more elements
produced by breaking or fracturing.

Following are the different types of cracks in concrete :

• Diagonal Cracks
• Splitting Cracks
• Corrosion Cracks
• Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
• Expansion Concrete Cracks
• Concrete Fissures Induced By Slab Overload
• Settling Concrete Cracks
• Horizontal Concrete Cracks

Preventive measures to avoid creation of cracks:

Reduce Water Content in Concrete: A low water cement ratio will affect the quality of concrete.
W/C ratio is weight of water to the weight of cement used. A lower w/c ratio leads to high
strength in concrete and lesser cracks. W/C ratio shall not exceed 0.5 in concreting, which
reduces the workability of concrete which can be covered by use of plasticizer or
superplasticizer.

Proper Concrete Mix Design and use of Quality Materials: The concrete itself must be properly
proportioned, and properly mixed. If you use too little cement, you can almost guarantee cracks.
 Using too much water will make the concrete weak, leading to cracking. Use good quality
aggregates so will produce lower shrinkage concrete.

Finishing of Concrete Surface: Use proper finishing techniques and proper timing during and
between finishing operations. Flat floating and flat toweling are often recommended. Avoid
overworking the concrete, especially with vibrating screeds. Overworking causes aggregate to
settle and bleed water and excess fines to rise.

Proper Curing of Concrete: Stop rapid loss of water from surface or drying of concrete due to
hydration (liquid concrete converts to plastic and then to solid state) causes drying of the slab,
so it’s recommended to cure the slab for several days. As soon as the concrete on slab sets its
general practice to make boundary with mortar on the slab and keep it filled with water.

Proper Placement and Vibration of Concrete: Properly placed, vibrated, finished concrete
reduces the chances of producing cracks.Properly vibrate to release entrapped air which later
leads to cracks.

Some Other Preventive Control Measures for Cracks in Concrete:

• Applying good acrylic silicone sealer yearly to concrete works

• Avoid calcium chloride admixtures
• Prevent extreme changes in temperature.
• Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture
• Warm the subgrade before placing concrete on it during cold weather
• Consider using synthetic fibers to help control plastic shrinkage cracks.

Que 3. a) what is rebar locator, where it is used and how it works.

Ans:- Rebar locator test can be defined as the non-destructive test conducted on the concrete
structures to determine the size and location of the reinforcements and concrete cover rapidly and
efficiently.

Applications of Rebar locator Test

Some of the applications of the test can be duly listed as follows:

• Determination of the thickness of the concrete cover.

• Determination of the location of steel bars.
• Determination of the diameters of the reinforcement bars.

Procedure

The test procedure of the rebar detector test involves the following series of steps:

1. The concrete surface to be tested is first marked.

2. The instrument is then laid on the concrete surface (generally the surface of column or slab).
3. Then, the instrument is duly moved from left to right and from bottom to up to get the
position of the reinforcement bars.
4. After locating the reinforcement, the total cover of the rebar is determined using
themasonry drill.

Factors Affecting the Test

Some of the factors that affect the test results can be listed as follows:

• Use of metal ties.

• Use of aggregate that has magnetic properties.
• Use the varied iron content of cement.

Advantages of Test

• The test is very quick and can be completed in a short period of time.
• The rebar detector or the profometer is light in weight and portable.

Disadvantages of Test

• The test results can be affected by a number of factors such as binding wire, close spacing of
bars etc.
• Recalibration may be required for the rebars in excess of the distance of 32mm.
• The thickness of the concrete cover may be altered in case special cement or admixtures are
used.

b) explain pull out test on concrete, its application and advantages.

Ans:- A pull-out test on concrete is a type of non-destructive test used to assess the bond strength
between the concrete and reinforcing elements, such as steel bars or anchors.

a) The concrete pull out test produces a well-defined failure in the concrete and measures a
static strength property of in-situ concrete.
b) The equipment used in concrete pull out test is simple to assemble and operate, but it does
require expertise.
c) The concrete pull out test procedure starts with the fixing of pull out test equipment.
d) The concrete pull out test equipment produce pull out forces which pull the attached cone
shape concrete segment.
e) The pull out forces is closely correlated to the compressive strength of concrete. This
Correlation is achieved by measuring the pull out force required to pull an embedded steel
probe or the disc.
f) The steel probe or disc is either cast into fresh concrete or installed in hardened concrete,
against a circular counter pressure placed on the concrete surface concentric with the
disc/ring.
g) The concrete pull out test method does not provide statistical procedures to estimate other
strength properties.

Factors Affecting the Concrete Pull Out Test:

• The arrangement of the embedded insert.

• The dimensions of bearing ring.
• The depth of embedment.
• The type of aggregates uses in concrete.

Use of Concrete Pull Out Test:

• Concrete pull out the test is used to estimate the in-situ strength of concrete for the
determination of the following point.
• To determine Whether the reinforced concrete structure may be placed into service or
 • To determine the strength of concrete for carrying out post- tensioning operations or
• To Measure the time for removal of forms and shores based on the actual strength of the in-
situ concrete; or
• To terminate the curing of concrete based on the targeted strength achievement.
• Furthermore, post-installed pull out test may be used to estimate the strength of concrete in
existing construction.

Applications :

i. quality control: Pull-out tests are commonly used in construction projects to ensure that the
bond strength between concrete and reinforcement meets design specifications.
ii. structural assessment: Assessing the bond strength is crucial for evaluating the structural
integrity and safety of concrete structures, especially in critical areas like beams, columns,
and slabs.
iii. research and development: Researchers use pull-out tests to study and improve the
performance of various construction materials and techniques.
iv. repair and retrofitting: Pull-out tests can be employed to assess the bond strength in existing
structures, helping engineers determine the feasibility of repair or retrofitting activities.

Advantages:-

• Non-Destructive: Pull-out tests are non-destructive, meaning they do not cause damage to
the structure being tested.
• Quantitative Data: The test provides quantitative data on the bond strength, allowing for a
more precise assessment of the concrete-reinforcement interface.
• Versatility: The test can be adapted for various types of embedded elements and can be
conducted in different locations within a structure.
• Early Assessment: Pull-out tests can be conducted at an early stage of construction to
identify potential issues and ensure that construction practices are in line with design
requirements.

OR
Que 4. a) explain penetration resistance test on concrete and what it indicates.
Ans:-

Penetration resistance test: It is one of the most well-known penetration resistance methods. It is
based on the determination of the depth of the penetration of probes (steel rods or pins) into the
concrete. The apparatus used in this method is Windsor probe which is a special gun that uses a 0.32
Caliber blank with a precise quantity of powder to fire a high strength steel probe into concrete. The
principle underlying the technique is that penetration depth is inversely proportional to the
compressive strength of concrete, but the relation depends on hardness of aggregate. The minimum
distance between the edges of concrete member should be of the order of 150 mm and that
between the test positions be 200 mm. The penetration will be effected by the presence of
reinforcing bars within the zone of influence of the penetrating probe. Thus the location of the
reinforcing steel should be determined prior to selecting test locations. Manufacturers provide
calibration charts of strength versus penetration for the normal probe for aggregates with hardness
between 3 and 7 on Mohr’s scale. However, the penetration resistance should be correlated with
the compressive strength of a standard test specimen or core of the actual concrete used.
Application:

• This test is used for estimating the uniformity & quality of concrete.
• An area of poor concrete can be easily described by making a series of penetration tests at
regular spaced locations.
• This method provides excellent means for determination of relative concrete strength in the
same structure or in different structures without extensive calibration.

Advantage:

• The test equipment is simple, durable and requires less maintenance and can be easily used
with least training given to inspectors.
• Can also be used in places where access is limited.

Limitation:

• It does not give reliable results on strength values.

• Type of aggregates affects the penetration depth; hence a separate calibration chart needs
to be prepared for each type.
• This test damage the concrete leaving a hole of about 8 mm in diameter for the depth of the
probe, hence minor cracks of exposed surface becomes necessary.
• Damage in the form of cracking may be caused in case of slender members.

Indication:

• Concrete hardness
• Strength estimation
• Uniformity and quality
• Surface condition
• Curing and maturity

B) What Are The Different Methods For Corrosion Measurement And Explain Any One
Method.
Ans:- There are several methods for measuring corrosion in various materials, including metals and
concrete. The choice of method depends on factors such as the material being tested, the
environment, and the level of detail required. Here are some common methods for corrosion
measurement

Weight loss method:

principle: This method involves measuring the weight loss of a metal specimen over time due to
corrosion.

Process: Metal specimens are exposed to the corrosive environment, and the weight loss is
measured periodically. The corrosion rate is calculated based on the weight loss.

Preliminary Investigation

Visual Inspection: In this inspection observations related to cracking, spalling, deflections,

distortions, misalignment and exposed steel reinforcement are measured and noted. The colour
changes in concrete can be of considerable assistance in the assessment of damage owing to fire.
The pink discoloration indicates concrete to have attained a temperature of 1000C-3000C
accompanied by a significant loss of strength. If this pink discoloration extends to the reinforcement,
i.e. beyond the cover thickness, further investigation on the strength of steel and concrete becomes
imperative. Local buckling of steel bars bared by spalling in the flexural members is suggestive of its
exposure to direct fire.

Determination of fire severity: In this phase of investigation, the debris found at the fire damaged
site is examined in order to assess the severity of the fire incident. Examining of the debris helps to
the estimate the maximum temperature that must have reached due to fire. Melting points of
various materials helps in the investigation of severity of fire. For instancePVC used on cables, pipes,
ducts, knobs, handles, house-ware etc. in case of fire at about temperature of 4000C-5000C get
blackened or discolored due to partial burning. It fumes and emits vapour at 1500C.

Detailed investigation: A number of NDT testing such as ultrasonic pulse velocity (USPV), impact
echo and impulse radar technologies are to be carried out. Destructive testing such as extraction of
core samples or steel reinforcement for existing concrete for laboratory testing is also done. USPV
test results help to estimate the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and quality of the
hardened concrete. The impact-echo results help to detect, locate and classify discontinuities such
as voids, delamination and loss of bond between cement paste and aggregates.

Que 5. a) Define Building Failure And Explain Types Of Failure In Civil Engineering Structures.
Ans:- Failure can be define as a breakdown in the operation, function, quality, or appearance of a
structure, system, component or material.

Building failure refers to a situation where a structure or a component of a building does not
perform as intended, leading to a loss of structural integrity, safety concerns, or a failure to meet
design expectations. Building failures can manifest in various ways, and they may result from design
flaws, construction errors, material deficiencies, environmental factors, or a combination of these
issues. Building failures can occur in different types of structures, including residential, commercial,
industrial, and infrastructure projects.

The various types of construction failure are:

• Failure of concrete structure

• Component failure
• Fundamental failure
• Non-progressive failure
• Progressive failure
• Economic failure
• Aesthetic failure
• Structural failure
• Functional failure.

1.Failure in Concrete Structure: –

When the mix components such as cement, sound, and coarse aggregate are of less value or
standard, if there is a tendency that the concrete structure will fail because of the inadequate mix
ratio of the component.

2. Component Failure
Building component tends to fail depending on materials, designs, method of construction,
environmental conditions and the use to which the building is put.

3. Foundation Failure

Foundation failure can cause the building to collapse, foundation is the first element of a building
where the construction starts, but when it fails, it can cause many defects in the building including
failure or collapse of the building. Repair of defect in foundation are mostly difficult and very costly,
so it is most important to understand the type of foundation failure to avoid them by taking
necessary steps before construction starts.

4. Non – Progressive Failure

Non – progressive failure or condition is one that is not likely to deteriorate. Generally, the non-
progressive failure of an under-specified component such as building insulation can result from
design or construction defects that often do not need to be remediated.

5. Progressive Failure:

This type of failure is one that is likely to worsen over time. In the legal and insurance fields, a
progressive failure that is the basis of a defective work claim is often described as a “continuous
loss”. Defects such as expansive soil under a basement slab can cause structural and progressive slab
failure and may need to be corrected as soon as possible.

6. Economic Failure:

This is a condition that result in economic loss or the need to expand unplanned moves to keep a
structure, component or system in order. The loss could take the form of excessive maintenance,
shortened useful life or added repairs. The installation of improper bearings in an engine can result
in the economic failure of the equipment.

7. Aesthetic Failure

A condition that renders a component unsightly, significantly detracting from its appearance, can be
termed as aesthetic failure, economic consequences often accompany aesthetic failures such as
masonry effective, although they may be subjective and difficult to quantity.

8. Structural Failure

This failure is a breakdown in one or more components of the structure system. Such failures include
common concrete cracking which may or may not be of any consequences, depending upon the
degree of the failure. In addition, structural failures do not always require correction, and in the
context of construction defect claims and litigation, a structural failure without some functional
failure or impairment is of limited value.

9. Functional Failure

This is a condition that renders a component unsuitable or unusable for its intended purpose. The
functional failure of a mechanical piece of equipment resulting from a manufacturing defect often
require immediate correction.

b) What Do You Mean By Accidental Over Loading Failures In Civil Engineering Structure.

Ans:- Overloading the structure: The structure of a building can become overloaded due to
excessive quantities of materials been supported by the building. Structural element been
overloaded beyond their design limit. Weakening structural element, rendering them incapable of
supporting their own load and also abuse of the structure.

Accidental overloading failures in civil engineering structures refer to situations where a structure
experiences loads that exceed the design capacity due to unexpected and unplanned events. These
events can lead to the failure of structural components, compromise the integrity of the entire
structure, and pose risks to safety. Accidental overloading failures are different from regular design
loads and may result from various factors, including human error, construction mishaps, or
unforeseen environmental conditions.

The overloading may happen during the construction stage due to following reasons:

• The negligence of the workers during the construction stage (storing of the excessive
amount of building materials like cement, sand, bricks, steel bars, etc. at one place on the
floor of the building).
• The heavy machineries like the crane, hoist, etc. are placed on the floor for lifting the
building materials.

Following are the reasons for building collapse due to overloading:

• Adding additional floor over existing building (floor for which structure is not designed)
• Placing of water tank at a place, which is not designed for such load.
• Using an ordinary room as a godown of heavy materials like grains, potatoes, books etc.
• Converting the ordinary room for purposes like store, library, etc. where loads are heavy.
• The building is designed for the residential purpose, and it is used for the commercial or
institutional/industrial purpose including machineries with heavy vibrations.
• Cantilever balcony/projection done subsequently without adequate provision in design.
Converting cantilever balcony into any type of room also may leads to the partial collapse of
building.
OR

Que 6. a) explain damages of the structures due to fire and methodology for
investigation of failures due to fire.
Ans:- The degree of damage caused depends upon the fire intensity, age of the structure, and
duration for which the structure was under the attack of fire.
Behaviour of concrete under Fire: The effect of fire on concrete depends upon the higher
temperature reached during the fire,length of fire period, the rate of temperature and
properties of concrete. The resistance of concrete under fire depends upon type of cement,
aggregate, w/c ratio, cement content,microstructure and thickness of cover to concrete.
Concrete and masonry as a structural material is inherently superior in fire resistance in
comparison to wood and steel. Concrete is a poor conductor of heat. Thermal conductivity
reduces as temperature increases. Concrete is able to retain its strength for longer periods,
even at a temperature of 7000C-8000C. Steel however,loses its strength at this high
temperature. At the fire temperature greater than 9000C, colour of concrete changes to buff.
Various components of concrete begin to melt at elevated temperature greater than 12000C.
The concrete melts completely at temperature greater than 14000C. Type of distress seen in
concrete structures under fire includes expansive spalling, strength reduction of concrete and
steel, loss of anchorage of reinforcing steel, excessive steel, excessive deflection of slabs,
beams and distortion of the whole structural framing.
Behaviour of steel under Fire
The excessive spalling of concrete, exposes the steel reinforcement to the heat, which causes it
to soften as the temperature approaches 6000C. At this temperature, the bar lose about 50%
of their yield strength which in turn reduces their capacity to resist the axial thermal
restraining forces imposed by the surrounding construction. This causes the steel bars to
buckle. Fire-fighting operation post fire, results into quenching of the steel reinforcement in
concrete. This results in loss of ductility that affects the load carrying capacity of the reinforced
concrete members.
Behavior of masonry under fire
The components of masonary, i.e., mortar and bricks are incombustible. However, they do get
effected by the temperature of the flames, the duration for which the masonary is subjected to
flames. The calcium carbonate in mortars gives off the carbon-di-oxide at temperature of
5000C and at about 9000C, it gets calcined, i.e. it gets transformed to quicklime, thereby losing
most of its cohesive and adhesive properties. Bricks units of masonry will not be generally
affected by the temperatures that are below the firing temperature. However, temperature
more than the original firing temperature causes softening and distorting of bricks.
Repair of Fire Damaged Elements
The commonly used repair materials for damaged concrete structures are cementitious
mortars,epoxy resin modified mortars or concrete.
1. Removal of the unsound or damaged concrete
2. Cleaning of reinforcing steel and installing new reinforcement, if required
3. Cleaning of the exposed concrete surface
4. Replace the removed concrete
Preparation of damage surfaces:
Removal of the damaged concrete forms the most essential in fire damage. The affected
concrete is to be removed because it would have lost all its strength and would thus interfere
with development of structural bonds of any repair-mortar or concrete with sound concrete
underneath. The removal of damaged concrete is carried out with the help of hand tools like
hammer and chisel or light pneumatic tools.

b) What Do You Mean By Poor Construction Practices Failures In Civil Engineering

Structures And How The Failures Can Be Avoided.
Ans:- Poor construction practices failures in civil engineering structures refer to instances where
substandard or incorrect construction methods, techniques, or materials are employed, leading to
the compromised integrity and performance of the structure. Such failures can result from a variety
of factors, including inadequate workmanship, lack of quality control, non-compliance with
specifications and standards, and insufficient supervision during the construction process.
Poor construction methods and workmanship: Poor construction methods and workmanship is
responsible for the failure of buildings and structure. The poor construction methods and
workmanship is caused due to negligence and inadequate quality control at construction site.
The effect and inadequate quality control at construction site. The effect of some of the poor
construction methods includes:
(a) Incorrect placement of steel
(b) Inadequate cover to reinforcement
(c) Incorrectly made construction joints.
(d) Grout leakage
(e) Poor compaction
(f) Segregation
(g) Poor curing
(h) Too high of water content.
Preventions:
• Stringent design and engineering standards: Adhering to robust design standards and codes
ensures that structures are designed to withstand anticipated loads and environmental
forces.
• Quality control in construction: Implementing rigorous quality control processes during
construction helps detect and rectify any deficiencies or errors that may compromise
structural integrity.
• Regular inspections and maintenance: Conducting regular inspections and proactive
maintenance activities help identify potential issues early on, allowing for timely repairs and
preventive measures.
• Advancements in technology and materials: Embracing technological advancements and
innovative materials can enhance structural strength, durability, and resilience.

Que 7. a) What Is Admixture, Explain Different Types Of Admixtures And States Its Purpose.
Ans:-
Admixture is a term used in construction to describe materials added to concrete, mortar, shotcrete
and cement to enhance their properties. Admixtures can improve building materials’ workability,
durability, strength, and aesthetics. Admixtures can be classified into different types based on their
chemical and physical properties. The most common types of admixtures include chemical
admixtures, mineral admixtures, and fibre admixtures.
Following are the types of admixtures:
Air Entraining Admixtures
i. Air entrainment Admixture is one of the most important inventions in concrete technology. Its
main function is to increase the durability of the concrete under freezing and thawing conditions.
ii. When added to the concrete mix, these mixtures will form millions of air bubbles throughout the
mix and improve the properties of the concrete.
iii. The entry of air into the concrete will also improve the workability of the concrete, prevent
segregation and bleeding, reduce the weight of the unit and the elastic modulus of the concrete,
improve the chemical resistance of the concrete and reduce the content of cement or sand or water
in the concrete, etc.
iv. The most commonly used air entrainment Admixture is vinsol resin, darex, Teepol, Cheecol, etc.
v. These Admixtures are actually made from natural wood resins, alkaline salts, animal and
vegetable fats, and oils, etc.

Pozzolanic Admixture
i. Pozzolanic mixtures are used to prepare a dense concrete mix that is most suitable for water
retention structures, such as dams, reservoirs, etc.
ii. They also reduce the heat of hydration and thermal shrinkage.
iii. The best pozzolanic materials in an ideal quantity provide better results and avoid or reduce
many risks, such as the reaction of alkaline aggregates, leaching, attack of
sulfates, etc.
iv. The pozzolanic materials used as Admixture are natural or artificial.
v. Naturally occurring pozzolanic materials are the clay, shale, volcanic tufts, pumice, etc. and
artificial pozzolans available are fly ash, silica fume, blast furnace slag, rice husk ash, etc.

Moisture–proof Admixture
i. Moisture-proof or waterproofing Admixture is used to make the concrete structure impervious to
water and to prevent moisture on concrete surfaces.
ii. In addition to the waterproof property, they also act as accelerators in an early stage of concrete
hardening.
iii. Moisture-proof Admixture is available in liquid, powder, paste, etc.
iv. The main constituents of this Admixture are aluminum sulfate, aluminum chloride, zinc sulfate,
calcium chloride, sodium silicate, etc., which are chemically active pore fillers.

Gas Formation Admixture

i. Aluminum powder, activated carbon, hydrogen peroxide are commonly used chemical gas-forming
Admixtures.
ii. When gas-forming Admixture is added, it reacts with the hydroxide obtained by hydrating the
cement and forms small bubbles of hydrogen gas in the concrete.
iii. The range of bubble formation in the concrete depends on many factors, such as the amount of
mixture, the chemical composition of the cement, the temperature, the fineness, etc.
iv. The bubbles formed help the concrete to fight the problems of settlement and bleeding.
v. Gas forming Admixture is also used to prepare lightweight concrete.
vi. For purposes of resistance to settlement and bleeding, a small amount of gas-forming Admixture
is used, which is generally 0.5 to 2% by weight of cement.
vii. However, in order to manufacture light concrete in greater quantity generally, 100 grams per bag
of cement is recommended.

Air Detraining Admixtures

i. Air detraining mixtures are used to remove excess air from concrete voids.
ii. Sometimes aggregates can release gas in the concrete, and the entrained air is more than
necessary, so this type of mixture is useful.
iii. Some of the most widely used detraining mixtures are tributyl phosphate, silicones, water-
insoluble alcohols, etc.

Alkaline Aggregate Expansion that Prevents Admixture

i. The expansion of the alkaline aggregate in the concrete occurs by the reaction of the alkaline
cement with the silica present in the aggregates.
ii. It forms a gel-like substance and causes volumetric expansion of the concrete, which can lead to
cracks and disintegration.
iii. The use of pozzolanic Admixture will prevent the reaction of alkaline aggregates, and, in some
cases, air entrainment Admixture is also useful.
 v. Admixture commonly used to reduce the risk of the reaction of alkaline aggregates are
aluminum powder and lithium salts.
Grouting Admixture
i. Grout additions are added to the grout materials to improve the grout properties according to the
grout requirement.
ii. Sometimes there is a need for quick grouting, and sometimes there is a need for slow grouting to
spread into deep cracks or fissures.
iii. Therefore, different Admixture is used as grout Admixture based on the situation. Accelerators
such as calcium chloride, triethanolamine, etc. are used as grout Admixture when the grout must be
adjusted quickly.
iv. Likewise, retarders such plaster, etc. are used to shorten the grout hardening time.
v. Gas-forming Admixture, such as aluminum powder, are added to the grouting material to
neutralize the laying of foundations.

Corrosion Prevention Admixture

i. Corrosion of steel in the reinforced concrete structure is general and severe when the structure is
exposed to saline water, industrial fumes, chlorides, etc.
ii. To prevent or delay the corrosion process, Admixture is used.
iii. Some of the corrosion prevention additions used in reinforced concrete are sodium benzoate,
sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, etc.

Purpose of Admixture
i. Admixtures are used in concrete to alter its properties in various ways.
ii. Some common uses include improving workability, increasing or decreasing cure time, and
increasing concrete strength.
iii. Admixtures can also be used for aesthetic reasons, such as to change the color of the cement.

b) What Is Glass And Carbon Fibre Wraps, Were It Has Been Used And What Is Its Purpose.
Ans:- Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer
i. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) is one of a relatively new class of composite material.
ii. These materials are manufactured from a combination of fibers and resins.
iii. These composite materials have proven to be efficient and economical for the development of
new structures and the repair of deteriorating structures in civil engineering.
iv. One of the important reasons for the use of GFRP composite materials is because of its superior
mechanical properties.
v. These mechanical properties includes impact resistance, strength, stiffness, flexibility and also its
enhanced ability to carry loads. In construction industry, in order to meet the advanced
infrastructure requirements, new innovative technologies and materials are being introduced.
vi. Also any new technology or material has its own limitations but to meet the new requirements,
new technologies and materials have to be invented and put to use.
vii. With structures becoming old and increasing bar corrosion, old buildings have to be retrofitted
with additional materials to increase their durability and life.
viii. For strengthening and retrofitting of concrete structures confinement with FRP has various
applications.
ix. In this project concrete specimens are wrapped with glass fibre reinforced polymers to study the
effect of confinement in the strength of specimens.
x. For wrapping bi-directional and uni-directional glass fibre reinforced polymer mats are used.
xi. During the uni-directional glass fibre reinforced polymer wrapping, it is wrapped in both
horizontal and vertical directions.
xii. The fiber used in this paper is bi-directional fibre.
xiii. To find the effect of wrapping, specimens are wrapped in one rotation and two rotations.
Carbon Fibre Wrapping
i. Carbon Fibre Wrapping System is a solution for structural strengthening.
ii. Carbon fibre has very high tensile strength and is also very lightweight.
iii. When bonded to the exterior of a concrete column, beam, or slab, it can add significant strength
without adding weight that would increase the load on foundations and other structural members.
iv. A mix of usually carbon or glass fibre fabrics, and an epoxy resin, wrapping systems are custom
designed for each project and application.
v. Carbon Fibre Wrapping System provides significant strength to structures and protects against
further corrosion and erosion.
vi. The impervious material will protect a structure from moisture intrusion and further corrosion,
reducing the need for ongoing maintenance work.
vii. Carbon fibre has extremely high elasticity and is additionally lightweight.
viii. When clung to the outside of a solid segment, pillar, or piece, it can include critical quality
without including weight that would expand the load on establishments and other structural
individuals.
ix. A blend of normally carbon or glass fibre textures, and an epoxy resin, wrapping frameworks are
specially crafted for each venture and application.

OR

Que 8.a) What Is Distress Explain Different Types Of Distress.

Ans:- Distress: It is a collective term for the physical problems such as cracks, spalls, pop -outs,
staining, decay or corrosion.
Types of Distress

• Honey Combing- It refers to voids caused by the mortar not filling the spaces between
the coarse aggregate particles.
• Crazing- It is the network of fine random cracks that are formed due to the shrinkage of
the layer relative to the base concrete. It does not pose any structural or serviceability
problem.
• Pop-outs- Rough conical depressions in the concrete surface caused by the expansion of
the deleterious aggregate particles near the surface or expansion due to freezing are
called pop-outs.
• Disintegration two terms generally used to mark this they are Scaling - Localized flaking
or peeling away of the near surface portion of the hardened concrete due to freeze
thaw,
• Dusting- White powdery formation on the surface of hardened concrete that receives
excessive traffic.
• Cracking- Cracking in concrete is inherent. Type of structure and nature of cracking is
the major concern. Cracks in the concrete does not always mean that the structure is
unusable.
Longitudinal distress in a concrete structure: Longitudinal distress occurs parallel to the
centerline of the pavement. They can be caused by a poorly constructed joint; shrinkage of the
asphalt layer; cracks reflecting up from an underlying layer; and longitudinal segregation due to
improper paver operation. Longitudinal distress is parallel to the pavement’s centerline or lay
down direction.
Corner curling distress in a concrete structure: Corner Curling distress is usually caused by
unequal drying shrinkage: It’s greater at the top of the slab than at the bottom. This causes the
corners to curl upward, leaving them unsupported. Traffic loads then cause corner cracks like
those that have occurred at nearly every contraction-joint intersection (see drawing, above).
The multiple cracking in some of the panels may be caused by restrained drying shrinkage or
thermal contraction.
Joint seal distress in a concrete structure: Joint seal damage is any condition which enables
incompressible materials or water to infiltrate the joint from the surface. Typical types of joint
seal damage are, Extrusion, hardening, adhesive failure (bonding), cohesive failure (splitting),
or complete loss of sealant. The pavement joint and crack-sealing faces several challenges as
the new millennium approaches. These challenges cover a broad spectrum of issues, from
materials to construction practices.

b) What Is Acoustic Emission Method And Explain Principle Of Acoustic Emission Test.
Ans:-
Acoustic emission: Acoustic emission (AE) is defined as the physical phenomenon in which a
material generates elastic waves when subjected to stress or deformation. These signals are
registered using a non-destructive test method (NDT) called the acoustic emission test. An
acoustic emission test is conducted to monitor a member's structural health to assess its
retrofitting and repairing possibilities. Acoustic emission testing is an NDT method with
widespread application in structural integrity test, monitoring bridges, pipelines, wind turbines,
and leak detection. This article explores the principle and features of acoustics emission testing
in construction.
Principle of Acoustic Emission Test
i. An acoustic emission test locates the yield point of the material by representing
cracks,fractures, leakage points, or similar problems.
ii. The yield point is responsible for the generation of stress waves that propagate through the
structure.
iii. The waves that reach the surface of the structure are used to stimulate a piezoelectric
sensor, which converts these stress waves into an electrical signal for further analysis.
iv. An AE test is sensitive to internal damages.
v. These damages have parameters that correlate with the internal load.
vi. An AE test on concrete helps to relate the mechanical behavior of concrete with the crack
propagation within the structure. As shown in Figure-2 below, the propagation of cracks and
the localization of micro-cracks are studied using the AE test.
vii. Highly localized stresses are developed at the crack tip, which releases stress waves.
viii. These waves are monitored by the piezoelectric sensors, where they are converted from
mechanical signals to electrical signals.
ix. The characteristics of damages and cracks in new and historical structures are studied based
on the obtained AE parameters. The AE parameters are AE event, AE count, AE energy, AE
arrival time, and AE source location.
x. In the simplest terms, acoustic emission in a structure can be defined as tiny earthquakes
occurring within the material.
xi. These emissions are developed when the test material is subjected to external stimulus like
loads or temperature.
xii. This technique globally monitors the defects within large structures or machines with
minimum disruption to the material. AE test method can be transient or continuous.

Que 9. a) Explain Concrete Behaviour Under Corrosion And What Is Chloride Induced
Corrosion.
Ans:-
a) Concrete corrosion is the chemical, colloidal or physicochemical deterioration and
disintegration of solid concrete components and structures, due to attack by reactive
liquids and gases.
b) This type of corrosion causes widespread damage to critical sewage pipelines, bridges
and other critical assets made of concrete.
c) Coatings and other preventive measures are used to overcome this type of corrosion.
d) Different types of cements and production techniques are being developed to monitor
and minimize damage.
e) While concrete structures are corroded by chemical reaction, the steel reinforcement in
many of these structures is corroded by electrochemical reaction.
Concrete corrosion is mainly caused by:
• Salt water or acidic ground water
• Microbes in sewer pipes
• Sulphates
• Chlorides
• Nitrates
• Fluorides
• Sulphides
• Industrial waste like slag and corrosive gases
Preventive measures include:
• Paint application such as varnish, oil or lacquer-based paint
• Surface treatment
• Appropriate choice of cement mix and chemicals during cement production
• Action to prevent attack of corrosive water or other liquids and gases
Chloride ingress:
i. Chloride penetration is among the main causes of corrosion initiation in reinforced
concrete(RC) structures producing premature degradations.
ii. Weather and exposure conditions directly affect chloride ingress mechanisms and therefore
the operational service life and safety of RC structures.
iii. Chloride ingress is among the principal causes of deterioration of reinforced concrete (RC)
structures in chloride-contaminated environments leading to important serviceability and
safety reductions as well as increasing repair and maintenance costs.
iv. Concrete provides physical and chemical protection to the reinforcing steel in these
environments where the chloride sources are external (seawater and salt spray) or internal
(chlorides from concrete mixing).
v. Most part of RC structures located in maritime and coastal zones are subjected to chloride
through salt spray and seawater.
vi. Some RC structures located inland are exposed to de-icing salt during cold seasons
Chloride ingress into concrete is a complex mechanism that could be influenced by the
following circumstances:

• The chloride concentration of the surrounding environment varies over time.

• The amount of chloride in contact with concrete depends on its exposure to the
surrounding environment which can be classified into four zones: submerged, tidal,
splash and salt spray.
• The material properties change over time and are influenced by environmental
conditions (e.g., temperature and relative humidity).

b) What Is Grouting, What Should Be Properties Of Grout And States Its Application.
Ans:-

Grouting:

• Grouting in civil engineering refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock
formation to change its physical characteristics.
• It is one of the ways in which ground water can be controlled during civil engineering works.
• Grouting is suitable where soil permeability would create a heavy demand on pumping or
where ground conditions mean it may be economically inefficient to bore wells.
• Grout may also be used in the formation of pile foundations, ground anchors, underreaming,
underpinning, in road construction, dam construction and so on.
• Different materials may be used for grouting depending upon the soil or rock type, the area
to be grouted and so on.
• However, the basic process is the same: the soil or rock is injected with fluid grout which
sets and reduces or acts as a sealant on the material’s permeability.
Properties:

a) Grouts are available in premixed powder form for high mortar quality.
b) One-component product; only water and mixing are required, making it ready to use.
c) Possesses shrinkage compensation property.
d) No issues of Segregation and Bleeding.
e) Can be poured and pumped as needed.
f) Exhibits excellent flowing properties.
g) Consistency can be adjusted according to requirements.
h) Shows suitable adhesion with concrete.
i) Rapid strength development.
j) Provides a highly effective bearing area.
k) Non-toxic and inflammable material.
l) Non-corrosive property.
m) Initial expansion through gas generation.

Applications:

• Immediately pour the mixed grout onto the surface.

• Allow easy air escape to avoid trapped air hindering full contact grouting.
• Wet porous surfaces, especially for grouting base plates.
• Maintain continuous and sufficient pressure head to keep grout flowing.
 Que 10. a) What Is Jacketing, Explain Necessity Of Jacketing In Concrete Structure.

Ans:-

Jacketing: Jacketing is a technique used to increase the strength of existing structural members
(e.g. Columns, Beams etc.) by providing a “Jacket” of additional material around the existing
member. This additional material can be of several types e.g. concrete, steel or FRP etc. In this
article we will discuss methodology for Jacketing of RCC Column using concrete. The purpose of
this article is to highlight step by step construction procedure for Jacketing so that it can be
implemented at site.

i. It is a part of retrofitting i.e. repair, renovation, strengthening. (Retrofitting is the modification

of existing structures to make them more resistant).

ii. Jacketing is the most popularly used method for strengthening of building columns.

iii. Jacketing consists of added concrete with longitudinal and transverse reinforcement around
the existing column.

iv. It improves axial and shear strength of column and major strengthening of foundation may be
avoided.

Advantages:

• To increase the flexural strength of the structural member

• Prevents the concrete from dilating, forcing it in lateral compression and increasing its
compressive strength.
• Increases its effective ultimate compressive strain and its ductility
• Ease for working, reduction of dead load and cross-sectional area.
• The gaps are filled with non-shrink grout.

Necessities of jacketing:

• The load carried by column is increased.

• When there is error in design.
• Deterioration of column due to weathering action.
• Dilapidation (due to age or misuse) of column.
• Heavy damage due to other causes like earthquake, fire etc.
• When the load of the structure is increased and existing columns can’t take that load.
• When the design is faulty.
• When poor quality material is used.
• When the wrong construction practice is followed. e.g. steel bars are bent from their original
axis.
• When structure component is deteriorated due to weathering agency.
• Damage to column due to flood, earthquake, fire, etc.

b) How Under Water Repair Can Be Carried Out In Concrete What Are The Different
Stages In Under Water Repair Work.
Ans:- The major effects that underwater working has on repair operations are summarized as
follows:
 a) The cost & difficulty of underwater working requires that operations to be carried out
at the repair site be minimized & made as simple as possible. The method of repair
must be tailored to suit the available methods of access.
b) Preparation of the damaged area requires specially adapted techniques. Care must be
taken to ensure that the area is not contaminated prior to application of the repair
material.
c) The material selected for the repair must be compatible with underwater use both
during placing & curing. Many resin-based repair materials are not suitable for use
underwater; cementitious systems are however in an ideal medium.
d) Placement methods & formwork must be adopted that minimize mixing between repair
material &water.
e) Checking during the repair operation and regular inspection on completion is difficult
and costly to achieve under water. The cost of underwater repair is far greater than for
similar repairs carried out in the dry.
f) The cost of failed repairs is also therefore high. Hence it is important that laboratory
trials on both repair methods and materials be carried out to identify possible problem
areas and ensure smooth site operations.
Following steps are involved in under water repair:
PREPARATION OF DAMAGED AREA
1) SURFACE CLEANING
• All marine encrustations to be removed.
• Necessary to determine extent of damage and to ensure bond.
• Small areas: Hand held tools, mechanical wire brushes, needle guns or scabbing tools.
• Large areas: High pressure jets;
• Encrustation– Abrasive slurry
• Oil contamination – Detergent.
• After cleaning determine extent & type of damage.
2) REMOVAL OF DAMAGED CONCRETE
A. HIGH PRESSURE WATER JETTING

• Most common for underwater work

• A thin high pressure jet of water directed on the concrete surface removes mortar from
between the aggregates
• The reinforcement is itself cleaned but not cut by the water jet.
B. SPLITTING TECHNIQUES

• Hydraulic or Pneumatic expansive device scan be used to split concrete.

• Hydraulic expanding cylinders are inserted into predrilled holes & pressurized until
splitting occurs.
• Expansive cements are also effective. Cement mixed into a paste & poured into plastic
bags, which are put into pre drilled holes. In 24 hours it expands and splits concrete.
C. MECHANICAL CUTTING
Underwater cutting using hydraulically powered diamond tipped saws & drills have been used
extensively for minor works for many years.
D. THE CARDOX SYSTEM
 • Holes are drilled into concrete.
• Into these cartridges of pressurized CO2 are placed.
• The pressure is then released by electrically detonating a small initiating charge in each
cartridge, producing a comparatively gentle explosion which bursts the concrete apart.
E. EXPLOSIVE CUTTING

• Explosives using contact demolition charges have been used for many years.
• The size & placing of charge is matter of experience.
• The resulting cut/tear in concrete is irregular. Shaped charges provide precise cut.
F. THERMIC LANCE
• Comprises long steel tube packed with steel rods.
• O2 is passed down center of the tube & lance is ignited by external heat source.
• Temperature goes up to 3500 deg. C, enabling the tip of the lance to quickly melt
through concrete or steel.
G. CUTTING OF REINFORCEMENT
i. OXY-FUEL GAS CUTTING
As Acetylene becomes unstable with risk of explosion, Oxyhydrogen flame is used for
underwater steel cutting.
ii. OXY-ARC CUTTING
Same as above, only that an electric arc instead of a flame is used.
iii. MECHANICAL CUTTING
Diamond tipped saws can be used for small works.
iv. FINAL PEPARATION
Replace reinforcement rods surface flushed with clean water to remove bacterial or
microbiological growth.
H. PATCH REPAIRS
Minor damages can be repaired by special cementitious or resin based materials.
I. CEMENTITIOUS MORTARS
• Conventional mortar when immersed in water, washout of the top surface will occur.
• Special admixtures can be added to resist washout of cement.
• Self-leveling, Self-compacting mortars to be used.
J. RESIN MORTARS

• Normal epoxy or polyester resin mortars unsuited for underwater works.

• By careful formulation of the base resin & the curing agent, special epoxy & polyester
resin mortars have been developed which can be used underwater.