Lecture 8: Fourier Series and

Fourier Transform

3. Basis functions (3 lectures): Concept of basis

function. Fourier series representation of time
functions. Fourier transform and its properties.
Examples, transform of simple time functions.

Specific objectives for today:

• Examples of Fourier series of periodic functions
• Rational and definition of Fourier transform
• Examples of Fourier transforms

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 Lecture 8: Resources
Core material
SaS, O&W, C3.3, 3.4, 4.1, 4.2

Background material
MIT Lecture 5, Lecture 8

Note that in this lecture, we’re initially looking at periodic

signals which have a Fourier series representation: a
discrete set of complex coefficients
However, we’ll generalise this to non-periodic signals that
which have a Fourier transform representation: a
complex valued function
Fourier series sum becomes a Fourier transform integral

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 Example 1: Fourier Series sin(t)
The fundamental period of sin(t) is 
By inspection we can write:
sin(0t )  21j e j0t  21j e  j0t
So a1 = 1/2j, a-1 = -1/2j and ak = 0 otherwise

The magnitude and angle of the Fourier coefficients are:

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 Example 1a: Fourier Series sin(t)
The Fourier coefficients can also be explicitly evaluated
2 /  0
2 /  0
 sin(0t )dt   cos(0t ) 0
0
a0  2  11  0
0
2 /  0 2 /  0

  
0  jk0t 0
ak  2 sin( 0 t ) e dt  2
1
2j e j0t  21j e  j0t e  jk0t dt
0 0
2 /  0

 
0
 2
1
2j e j0t  21j e  j0t e  jk0t dt
0
2 /  0


0  j ( k 1)0t  j ( k 1)0t
 4j e  e dt
0
When k = +1 or –1, the integrals evaluate to T and –T,
respectively. Otherwise the coefficients are zero.
Therefore a1 = 1/2j, a-1 = -1/2j
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 Example 2: Additive Sinusoids
Consider the additive sinusoidal series which has a fundamental
frequency 0:
x(t )  1  sin 0t  2 cos 0t  cos 20t  4 
Again, the signal can be directly written as:
j0 t  j 0 t j 0t  j0t j ( 20t  4 )  j ( 20t  4 )
x(t )  1  1
2j (e e )  (e e )  (e 1
2 e )
j 0 t  j 0t j 4 j 2 0 t  j 4
 1  (1  1
2j )e  (1  ) e 1
2j  e e
1
2  e 1
2 e  j 2 0 t
j 4  j 4
a0  1 a1  (1  j ) a1  (1  j ) a2  e
1
2
1
2
1
2 a 2  e 1
2

The Fourier series coefficients can then be visualised as:

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 Example 3: Periodic Step Signal
Consider the periodic square wave, illustrated by:

and is defined over one period as:

1 | t | T1
x(t )  
0 T1 | t | T / 2
Fourier coefficients:
T1 T1
2T1  jk0t T1
e
 jk0t
a0   1dt 
1 ak  1
T dt   1
jk0T e
T T1
T1
T T1

2  e jk0T1  e  jk0T1 
  
k0T  2j  NB, these
 2 sin(k0T1 ) / k0T coefficients
are real
 sin(k0T1 ) / k
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 Example 3a: Periodic Step Signal
Instead of plotting both the magnitude and the angle of
the complex coefficients, we only need to plot the value
of the coefficients.
Note we have an infinite series of non-zero coefficients

T=4T1

T=8T1

T=16T1

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 Convergence of Fourier Series
Not every periodic signal can be represented as an infinite
Fourier series, however just about all interesting signals
can be (note that the step signal is discontinuous)
The Dirichlet conditions are necessary and sufficient
conditions on the signal.
Condition 1. Over any period, x(t) must be absolutely
integrable
 x(t ) dt  
T

Condition 2. In any finite interval, x(t) is of bounded

variation; that is there is no more than a finite number of
maxima and minima during any single period of the signal
Condition 3. In any finite interval of time, there are only a
finite number of discontinuities. Further, each of these
discontinuities are finite.
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 Fourier Series to Fourier Transform
For periodic signals, we can represent them as linear
combinations of harmonically related complex
exponentials
To extend this to non-periodic signals, we need to consider
aperiodic signals as periodic signals with infinite period.
As the period becomes infinite, the corresponding
frequency components form a continuum and the Fourier
series sum becomes an integral (like the derivation of CT
convolution)
Instead of looking at the coefficients a harmonically –
related Fourier series, we’ll now look at the Fourier
transform which is a complex valued function in the
frequency domain

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 Definition of the Fourier Transform
We will be referring to functions of time and their Fourier
transforms. A signal x(t) and its Fourier transform X(j) are
related by the Fourier transform synthesis and analysis
equations

X ( j )   x(t )e  jt dt  F{x(t )}


and

x(t )  1
2 

X ( j )e jt d  F 1{ X ( j )}
We will refer to x(t) and X(j) as a Fourier transform pair with
the notation
F
x(t )  X ( j )
As previously mentioned, the transform function X() can roughly
be thought of as a continuum of the previous coefficients
A similar set of Dirichlet convergence conditions exist for the
Fourier transform, as for the Fourier series (T=(- ,))

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 Example 1: Decaying Exponential
Consider the (non-periodic) signal
x(t )  e  at u (t ) a0
Then the Fourier transform is:
 
X ( j )   e u (t )e
 at  jt
dt   e ( a  j )t dt
 0

1
 e  ( a  j ) t
 ( a  j ) 0

1

( a  j )

a=1

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 Example 2: Single Rectangular Pulse
Consider the non-periodic rectangular pulse at zero
1 | t | T1
x(t )  
0 | t | T1
The Fourier transform is:
 T1
X ( j )   x(t )e  jt
dt   e  jt dt
 T1
T1
1  jt
 e
 j T1

2 sin(T1 )
 Note, the values are real


T1 = 1

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 Example 3: Impulse Signal
The Fourier transform of the impulse signal can be
calculated as follows:
x(t )   (t )

X ( j )    (t )e  jt dt  1


Therefore, the Fourier transform of the impulse function

has a constant contribution for all frequencies

X(j)

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 Example 4: Periodic Signals
A periodic signal violates condition 1 of the Dirichlet conditions for the
Fourier transform to exist
However, lets consider a Fourier transform which is a single impulse of
area 2 at a particular (harmonic) frequency =0.
X ( j )  2 (  0 )
The corresponding signal can be obtained by:

x(t )  1
2 
2 (  0 ) e jt d  e j0t
which is a (complex) sinusoidal signal of frequency 0. More generally,
when 
X ( j )   2a  (  k )
k  
k 0

Then the corresponding (periodic) signal is


x(t )   k
a e
k  
jk0t

The Fourier transform of a periodic signal is a train of impulses at the

harmonic frequencies with amplitude 2ak
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 Lecture 8: Summary
Fourier series and Fourier transform is used to represent
periodic and non-periodic signals in the frequency
domain, respectively.
ak  T1  x(t )e  jk0t dt
T

X ( j )   x(t )e  jt dt


Looking at signals in the Fourier domain allows us to

understand the frequency response of a system and also
to design systems with a particular frequency response,
such as filtering out high frequency signals.
You’ll need to complete the exercises to work out how to
calculate the Fourier transform (and its inverse) and
evaluate the frequency content of a signal

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 Lecture 8: Exercises

Theory
SaS, O&W, Q4.1-4.4, 4.21

Matlab
To use the CT Fourier transform, you need to have the symbolic
toolbox for Matlab installed. If this is so, try typing:
>> syms t;
>> fourier(cos(t))
>> fourier(cos(2*t))
>> fourier(sin(t))
>> fourier(exp(-t^2))
Note also that the ifourier() function exists so…
>> ifourier(fourier(cos(t)))

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